'JZjSAorter Course 



^NGMSH 






OMPOSITION 

3Y* 

W-H-Wells.-A-M 



- g5 M^4l% 




707/////////////J 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Shelf., \A/SS 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



A SHORTER COURSE 



IN 



English Grammar 



AND 



Composition 



By WH. WELLS, A.M., 

Author op "School Grammar" and " Graded School. 1 ' 




NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: 

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, AND COMPANY. 

1880. 



-fgn" 



COPYRIGHT, 1880, 

By W. H. WELLS. 



) KNISHT~a LECMARD . | 



PEEFACE. 



The Shorter Course is intended to furnish all the aid 
that is needed by the ordinary student in learning to 
speak and write well. 

English Grammar, in its application, when properly 
taught, is always interesting and attractive to pupils, and 
there is no branch of school instruction that is more valu- 
able or important than the study of our mother tongue. 

The present work commences with the knowledge 
which the pupil already possesses, and carries him di- 
rectly forward in the practical study and use of the lan- 
guage. 

Most of the common principles of grammar are ac- 
quired by pupils when they learn to talk, and read, and 
write, before they commence the study of grammar in 
school. An opportunity to tell what they know is a 
source of continual gratification to them, and fresh inter- 
est is constantly awakened in their minds as they are 
called on to make an application of the knowledge which 
they already possess. See § 24. 

The ability to speak well and write well is acquired by 
listening to good speakers and reading good authors, and 
by actual practice in speaking and writing, with a careful 
observance of the principles and rules by which the lan- 
guage is governed. 

In the Shorter Course, the rules of grammar are no- 
where taught as abstract principles, but everywhere in 
their practical application. The object sought in every 
lesson is to cultivate the power of expression, and the 



4 PREFACE. 

rules of grammar are made to take tlieir appropriate 
place as collateral aids. 

The principles of grammar are in most cases applied as 
follows : 

1. When a principle or rule is presented, it is first 
illustrated by one or more examples. 

The pupils are then called on, — 

2. To give oral examples of tlieir own construction. 

3. To select illustrative examples from their readers, or 
from other printed matter. 

4. To write sentences that embody and illustrate the 
principle or rule presented. 

In addition to the spoken and written exercises wmch 
accompany all the important principles and rules, and 
which render it impossible that they should be passed 
over without being thoroughly understood and applied, 
there is also a complete parallel Course of Lessons in 
Speaking and Writing interspersed throughout the 
work. 

The Shorter Course may properly be defined A Book 
of Progressive Exercises in Speaking and Writing Eng- 
lish, accompanied by a constant Application of the Prin- 
ciples and Pules by which the Language is governed. 

The Art of Conversation, which is the great art of 
oral intercourse in every-day life, is as dependent upon 
cultivation as any branch of school instruction; and any 
course of grammatical study that does not include lessons 
in conversation is radically defective. A systematic 
course of exercises in conversation forms one or the 
special features of the present work. 

The Exercises in Written Composition are so 
shaped and arranged as to furnish constant aid to pupils 
in enlarging tlieir vocabulary of words, and to teach them 



PREFACE. O 

how to use, in the best manner the words which they 
have at command. 

The system of Analysis adopted presents the elements 
of sentences and their various relations in as simple a 
manner as possible, and it is made entirely subordinate 
to Synthesis, or the work of putting words together. 

The Diagrams employed in connection with Analysis 
illustrate the structure of sentences very clearly by ren- 
dering the relations of their several parts visible to the 
eye. This mode of illustration is now employed in some 
form by most teachers as a valuable auxiliary to oral and 
written analysis. 

Exercises in tracing the Grammatical Connection of 
Words in Sentences, form one of the special features of 
the work. They require a careful analysis of thought as 
well as language, and combine in condensed form the essen- 
tial advantages of both parsing and analysis. See § 244. 

The Examples for Illustration throughout the work 
have been selected with great care from a wide range of 
reading; and while their first use is to illustrate different 
forms and modes of expression, they also embody gems 
of thought which cannot fail to prove both interesting 
and instructive. 

The author's connection with educational work has 
afforded him the most favorable opportunities for study- 
ing the wants of schools and the best methods employed 
in them. During the progress of this work he has care- 
fully examined all the English Grammars in general use in 
this country and in Great Britain, and has received valu- 
able suggestions from prominent educators, and from teach- 
ers of large experience in teachers' institutes and in schools. 

W. 11. w. 

Chicago, July 15, 1880. 



HISTORICAL NOTICE. 



The basis of the English language is the Anglo-Saxon. 

The original language of the British isles was the ancient 
Celtic or Keltic. This language is still spoken to some extent 
in Wales, in the Highlands of Scotland, in the western part of 
Ireland, and in the Isle of Man. 

The Anglo-Saxon language was brought into Britain in the 
fifth century, by the Angles and Saxons from the north of 
Germany. It has a much greater number of grammatical in- 
flections than modern English. The nouns have five cases, 
distinguished by different endings; adjectives are declined, 
and have distinctions of gender; pronouns have a greater 
number of forms, and verbs have more personal terminations. 

After the settlement of the Angles and Saxons in Britain 
frequent incursions were made by the Norsemen and Danes. 
This led to the introduction of a considerable number of 
Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian words into the language. 

The Norman Conquest occurred in 1066, and for a period 
of three hundred years following the Conquest Norman- 
French was mostly spoken by the upper classes and Anglo- 
Saxon by the lower. This resulted in the incorporation of a 
very large number of French words. 

Many Latin words were brought into England by the 
Roman missionaries, and a very large number of Latin words 
have come to us through the medium of Norman-French. 
By these and other means Latin has become one of the 
most important elements of the English tongue. 

The period of three centuries extending from the middle 
of the twelfth century to the middle of the fifteenth, is the 
transition period of the language from Anglo-Saxon to 
modern English. 



TO TEACHERS. 



The inost important principles of grammar are printed 
in the first and second sizes of type. They should 
never be studied as abstract definitions and rules, but 
always in connection with the oral and written exer- 
cises that illustrate and embody them. 

If any of the Exercises are found to be too long for 
single lessons, teachers will use their discretion in divid- 
ing them. 



PREPARATORY LESSONS. 



The Preparatory Lessons here given are designed to 
furnish suggestions and models for •the general guidance 
of teachers, but it is not expected that teachers will con- 
fine themselves closely to any set forms or methods in 
introducing the elementary principles of grammar. 



LANGUAGE. 

1. You all know how to talk and how to write. What you 
say when you are speaking or writing is called Language. 

Language is made up of words. When we say " The sun 
shines in the east," we make use of six words. 

Our own language is called the English language. 

Can you name any other languages besides the English? Do 
they have the same words as the English language? 

Definitions. 

Language is that which we speak or write when we 
express our thoughts. 

Spoken language consists of words that are uttered 
by the voice. 

Written language consists of words that are written 
or printed. 

The teacher now writes these definitions on the blackboard and 
requests the pupils to copy them on their slates and commit them to 
memory. 



10 PREPARATORY LESSONS. 



SENTENCES. 

2. When we say " Boys play," we put words together so 
that they make complete sense. But if we say "The sun," the 
sense is not complete till we say something about The sun. If 
we say "The sun shines," then the words make complete sense. 
When we put words together so as to make complete sense, we 
form a sentence. 

When we tell anything or make a statement, we form a 
sentence. " Boys play" is a sentence. ki I see the door" is a 
sentence. 

When we ask a question, we make a sentence. " Does the 
sun shine?" is a sentence. 

Give several examples of words joined together so as to form sentences. 

Definition. 

A sentence is a collection of words arranged in such 
a manner as to make complete sense. 

Capital Letters. 

3. The first word of every sentence should commence 
with a capital letter. 

Punctuation* 

4. The period (.) is used at the end of a complete 
sentence, unless its place is supplied by an interrogation 
point or by an exclamation point. See § 258. 

The interrogation point (?) is placed at the end of 
a sentence that asks a question. See § 261. 

The exclamation point (!) is used after an expres- 
sion of strong or sudden emotion, and after a solemn 
invocation or address. See § 262. 

This definition and the rules for punctuation and capital letters are 
now written on the blackboard, and the pupils are called on to copy 
them and commit them to memory. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 11 



EXERCISE. 

Select several sentences from your readers and apply the definition of 
a sentence and the rales for punctuation and capital letters. 

MODEL. 

"The Amazon is the largest river in the world." 

This is a sentence because it is a collection of words arranged 
in such a manner as to make complete sense. Its first word 
The commences with a capital letter because the first word 
of every sentence should commence with a capital. A period 
is placed at the end because a period is placed at the end of 
a complete sentence. 

Write five sentences of your own and apply the definition and rales. 

Note. — If any errors occur, they should be pointed out and corrected ; 
and these corrections should be made, as far as possible, by members of 
the class. 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

5. If we say came to school, we do not form a sentence. If 
we say Henry, we do not form a sentence. But if we say " Henry 
came to school," we do form a sentence. 

You see it takes two parts to make this sentence. Henry is 
one part, and came to school is the other. Henry names that of 
which something is said, and came to school tells what, is said 
of Henry. 

Every sentence has two principal parts. The part which 
names that of which something is said is called the subject. 
That part which tells what is said of the subject is called the 
predicate. 

In the sentence "Summer clouds bring pleasant showers," 
Summer clouds is the subject, and bring pleasant shoivers is the 
predicate. 

In the sentence "Where do swallows go in the winter?" 
swallows is the subject, and where do go in the winter is the 
predicate. 

Form sentences and point out the subjects and predicates. 



12 PREPARATORY LESSONS. 

Definitions. 

The subject of a sentence represents that of which 
something is said. 

The predicate of a sentence tells what is said of the 
subject. 

These definitions are written on the board and learned by the pupils. 



EXERCISE. 

The following sentences are written on the board, and the pupils are 
requested to copy them on their slates and underline all the subjects to 
distinguish them from the predicates. 



1. " The prize cannot be obtained without labor/' 

2. " A waving willow was bending over the fountain." 
[ 3. " The lark sings joyously.*' 

4. " Idleness often leads to vice." 

5. "What is time? Time is the life of the soul." — Long- 
felloiv. 

The teacher selects from the reader sentences to be used as in the 
foregoing exercise. 

[Complex and compound sentences should be avoided, and this exercise should be 
continued till the distinction between subject and predicate is well understood.] 



CLAUSES. 

6. If we say "Spring comes and the flowers appear," we 
have two sentences connected together. Spring comes is a sen- 
tence, and the flowers appear is a sentence. Each of these sen- 
tences is called a clause. 

Definition. 
When two or more sentences are connected together, 
each sentence is called a clause. 

This definition is written on the board and learned by the pupils. 

Write on the board sentences that are connected together and point out 
the clauses. 



' 



PHRASES —PUNCTUATION. 13 

PHRASES. 

7. If we say "A summer day," the words convey an idea, 
but they do not form a complete sentence. Such expressions 
are called phrases. 

The expressions "A summer cloud," "one by one," "in great 
haste," " by and by," are all phrases. 

Phrases are also contained in sentences. In the sentences 
"He came in great haste" "He stood listening to the music" in 
great haste and listening to the music are phrases. 

Give several examples of phrases in sentences and write them on the 
board. 

Definition. 

A phrase is a short expression which does not form a 

complete sentence- 

Punctuation. 

8. The comma (,) is used to express a slight separa- 
tion or disconnection of the different parts of a sentence, 
and to show more clearly the sense intended. See § 248. 

The semicolon (;)_ is used to denote a separation or 
disconnection somewhat greater than that which is ex- 
pressed by the use of a comma. See § 255. 

The definition of a phrase and the rules for punctuation are written 
on the board and learned by the pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

Let the following examples be written on the board or dictated to 
the class. 

1. "It is cold." 

2. "A fragrant flower." 

3. " The ripe apple fell from the tree." 

4. "Who is absent?" 

5. " Sooner or later." 

6. " Haste is needful in a desperate case." 

Which of these examples are phrases ? Which are sentences ? Point 
out three phrases contained in the sentences. 



14 PREPARATORY LESSONS. 

Select several sentences from your readers, point out the phrases, and 
apjrty the definition of a phrase and the rules for punctuation. 

MODEL. 

" Soon, almost every house was vacant; and men, 
women, and children were hastening to the beach." 

In this sentence, almost every house and to the beach are phrases, 
because they are short expressions which do not form com- 
plete sentences. 

Commas are placed after the words soon, men, women, and children, 
to express a slight separation or disconnection of the different 
parts of the sentence, and to show more clearly the sense 
intended. 

A semicolon is placed after the word vacant because the discon- 
nection to be expressed is somewhat greater than that which 
is expressed by the use of a comma. 

Write five sentences of your own, and apply the definition and rules. 

Let the teacher select a reading lesson that contains examples of the 
comma, the semicolon, the period, the interrogation point, and 
the exclamation point. The various uses of these marks, as they 
occur in the lesson, should be carefully studied and explained. 

Let the teacher also select from a reading book sentences that con- 
tain all these marks of punctuation, and write them on the board, omit- 
ting the marks. Let the pupils copy these sentences and insert the 
proper marks. 

Note. — All written exercises should be properly punctuated. When- 
ever rules of punctuation are required in addition to those which have 
already been given, they should be referred to by the teacher and learned 
by the pupils. 



REVIEW. 

Define Language; — spoken language; — written language. 

Define a sentence; — the subject of a sentence ; — the predicate of a 
sentence. 

Define a phrase. 

Give the rule for the form of letter which should commence the first 
word of a sentence ; — for the use of the period ; — of the interrogation 
point; — of the exclamation point; — of the comma; — of the semicolon. 



PAETS OF SPEECH — NOUNS. 15 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

9. When we go into a forest, we find the number of trees 
around us is greater than we can count. But when we examine 
them carefully, we find that some of them are very much alike 
in form, color of the bark, shape of the leaves, etc., while they 
differ greatly from all the rest. 

We also find that other trees, which differ widely from these, 
have strong resemblances to one another. 

If we go on in this way, putting the trees of each kind in one 
class, we find that all the trees in the forest belong to a few 
simple classes which are called Oak trees, Maple trees, Elm trees, 
etc., and we can easily tell the class to which any tree belongs. 

Name all the different kinds of trees you can think of. 

So it is with the words of our language. Though their num- 
ber is more than one hundred thousand, they are all included 
in eight different classes, which are called parts of speech. 
When we have learned how to distinguish these separate divi- 
sions, we can tell the class or part of speech to which any word 
in the language belongs. 

[By some such introductory exercise as this the interest of a class of beginners 
may be easily enlisted, and the pupils will thus be prepared to enter with pleasure 
upon the work of learning to distinguish the different parts of speech. 

It is all-important that they should take an active part in these lessons from the 
beginning. They should not only be called on to furnish copious examples and illus- 
trations of their own, but they should be encouraged to ask such questions as their 
interest or curiosity may suggest.] 

THE NOUN. 

10. Mention the names of any things that you saw on your way to 
school* 

As these names are given, the teacher or one of the pupils writes 
them in a column on the board. 

Give the name of a city ; — of a man; — of any object in a store; — in 
a garden. 

* " On a first introduction to such a subject as English Grammar, the best kind of 
Exercise is to be found in brisk, running questions, accompanied by commentary, on 
the part of the teacher." 1 — Hall. 



16 PREPARATORY LESSONS. 

These names are written in the same column on the board. 
Give the names of any other object you can think of. 
These are written in the same column. 

Are all the words you can think of names? Can you mention 
any words that are not names? Are the words good and bad 
names? Is run a name? Can you think of any object that has 
not a name? Do any objects you cannot see have names? Is 
air a name? Voice? Wise? Wisdom? Goodness? Virtue? 
Virtuous? 

The names of all objects are called nouns. 

Write the word Nouns over the column of names on the board. 

Definition. 
A noun is a word that is used as a name ; as, Chicago, 
man, wisdom. 

This definition is written on the board and learned by the pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

The following sentences are written on the board or dictated to 
the class. The pupils are then requested to select all the nouns and 
write them together on their slates. These results are examined and 
corrected. 

1. " The earth is a large globe or ball/ 5 

2. " Virtue is better than riches." 

3. " Springs are streams of water that issue from the ground. 
They derive their supply from the vast amount of water which 
descends from the clouds in the form of rain, hail, or snow. 11 

The teacher next selects an easy lesson in the reading-book of the 
class, and the pupils point out all the nouns; the first pupil in the class 
naming the first noun, the next pupil the second noun, and so on 
through the lesson. 

Write three or more sentences, and underline each of the nouns which 
they contain. 

The teacher now writes ten nouns on the board and calls on the 
pupils to write sentences that contain them. 

[Exercises of this kind should be continued till the pupils are able to point out all 
the nouns of any common sentence with readiness and accuracy.] 



PRONOUNS. 17 



THE PRONOUN. 

11. Is it proper to say " When George had learned George's 
lesson, George took George's hat and went home' 1 ? 

What would you say ? 

Write the correct form on the board. 

What words are used in the place of George's and George ? 

The words his and he are used to prevent a disagreeable repe- 
tition of the noun George. 

In the sentence " Henry called his sister, and she answered 
him/' what noun does she stand for? 

For what noun does him stand? 

In the sentence "Columbus, who discovered America, was 
born at Genoa," for what noun does who stand? 

Name other words that are used in place of nouns and write them 
on the board. 

All words that supply the place of nouns are called pronouns. 

' Write the word Pronouns over the column on the board. 

Definition. 

A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun; 
as, " We saw the ship which came into port." 

This definition is written on the board and learned by the pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

The following sentences are given to the class, as in previous exer- 
cises. 

1. "A man is known by the company he keeps." 

2. " These are the men who defended us." 

3. " When the wind blows violently among the trees, they 
bend and almost break. Though their roots are very strong, 
they sometimes yield to the force of the wind and fall to the 
ground." 



18 PREPARATORY LESSONS, 

Select all the pronouns in the foregoing sentences and write them 
together on your slates. 

Turn to your readers and point out examples of pronouns. 
Write sentences containing five or more pronouns and underline the 
pronouns. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

12. Let the following phrases be written on the board: 

1. "A round orange." 

2. "A sweet orange." 

What words are here used to qualify the word orange, or tell what 
kind of an orange it is ? 

Write these words in a column on the board. 

Name other words that may be joined to nouns to qualify them. 

Write these words under the column already commenced on the board. 

When we say "Ten trees," " The trees," " Many trees," "All 
trees," the words Ten, The, Many, and All, limit or define the 
noun trees, but do not qualify it. 

Write these words in the column on the board. 

Name other words that may be used to limit or define nouns. 

Write these words in the same column. 

When we say " He is tall," what word does tall qualify? 

Give another sentence that contains a word used to qualify a pronoun. 
Write this word under the others. 

These words all belong to the class called adjectives. 

Write the word Adjectives over the column on the board. 
Definition. 

An adjective is a word that is used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun; as, "Ripe fruit," 
" ten days," "all men," "They are industrious." 

This definition is written on the board and learned by the pupils. 






ARTICLES VERBS. 19 



ARTICLES. 

13. The limiting adjectives a or an and the are called 
articles. 

Let this sentence be written on the board and learned by the pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

The following sentences are given to the class, and the pupils are 
called on to select all the adjectives and write them together, underlin- 
ing the articles to distinguish them from the other adjectives. 

1. " Great men are not always wise. 1 ' 

2. " The climate of Egypt is hot in summer, but delightful in 
winter.'' 

3. " Twelve months make a year." 

4. " True courage is cool and calm." 

5. "A poor man wants some things; a covetous man, all 
things. 11 

6. " In life we shall find many men that are great, and some 
men that are good, but very few men that are both great and 
good. 11 

The teacher now selects an easy lesson in the reader, and the pupils 
point out all the adjectives. The first pupil names the first adjective, 
the next pupil the second adjective, and so on through the lesson. They 
should also tell which are articles. 

Write sentences containing Jive or more adjectives and underline the 
adjectives. Distinguish the articles by double underlining . 

The teacher next writes ten or more adjectives on the board and 
requests the pupils to write sentences that contain them. 



THE VERB. 

14. Let the following sentences be written on the board: 

1. " The horse runs." 

2. " The horse walks." 

What words are here used to assert or affirm something of 
the horse? 



20 PREPARATORY LESSONS. 

Give sentences that assert or affirm something of scholars. 
Write them on the board and underline the words that assert or 
affirm. 

Give sentences that command or entreat. 
Write them on the board. 

Which are the commanding or entreating words in these 
sentences? Underline them. 

Give sentences that ask questions. 

Write them on the board and underline the questioning words. 

When we say " He desires to go" "He stood looking at the 
crowd, 1 ' the words to go and looking do not assert anything, but 
they express an action or state in a general sense. See § 74. 

Give other sentences containing ivords that express an action or state in 
a general sense. 

Write them on the board and underline these ivords. 

Now examine carefully all the words in these examples that 
assert or affirm ; those that command, exhort, or entreat ; those 
that are used in asking questions ; and those that express an 
action or state in a general sense ; and you will see that they 
have strong resemblances to one another, but differ greatly from 
nouns, and pronouns, and adjectives. 

All the words on the board that are underlined belong to the 
class called verbs. 

Definition. 

A verb is a word that expresses an assertion or affir- 
mation ; as, I am / he hears / they learn. 

This is the most important meaning of a verb, that it 
expresses an assertion or affirmation ; but verbs are 
also used to command, exhort, entreat, or permit; as, 
"Be silent," u Strive to improve," "Spare me," "Go 
in peace"; or to ask a question; as, "Is it right?" 
or to express an action or state in a general sense ; as, 
doing / to obey. 

This definition is now written on the board and learned by the 
pupils. 






ADVERBS. 21 



EXERCISE. 

The following sentences are given to the class, and the pupils are 
called on to select all the verbs and write them on their slates. 

1. " Youth is beautiful." 

2. " We heard the rain falling on the roof." 

3. " We rise in glory as we sink in pride." 

4. " He is in haste to return." 

5. " The earth shook and trembled." 

6. "Savages have no towns or villages; and if they live in 
houses, these are of the rudest kind." 

7. " In the spring the farmer plows his ground and sows his 
seed, and in the summer and autumn he gathers his iiarvest." 

Open your readers and point out examples of verbs. 

Write sentences containing seven or more verbs and underline the verbs. 

The teacher now writes ten or more verbs on the board and asks the 
pupils to write sentences that contain them. 

[These exercises should be continued till the pupils are able to point out readily 
the principal verbs in any common sentence. They should not, however, at this 
6tage, be required to distinguish compound verbs.] 

THE ADVERB. 

15. Let this sentence be written on the board: "The train moves 
swiftly." 

What word tells how the train moves? 
What word does swiftly modify ? 
What part of speech is moves ? 

Underline the word swiftly. 

Give other sentences which contain verbs that are modified by other 
words. 

Write them on the board and underline the modifying words. 

Let this sentence be written on the board: "He is an exceedingly 
diligent scholar." 



What word modifies diligent ? 
What part of speech is diligent ? 



22 PREPARATORY LESSONS. 

Underline the word exceedingly. 

Give other sentences containing adjectives that are modified by other 
words. 

Write them on the board and underline the modifying words. 

Let this sentence be written on the board: "The train moves very 
swiftly." 

What word does very modify? 

Underline very. 

All the words on the board that are underlined belong to the 
class called adverbs. 

Definition. 
An adverb is a word that is used to modify the sense 
of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, u He im- 
proves rapidly." "How long is the lesson? " " He will 
return very soon. 5 ' 

This definition is written on the board and learned by the pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

The following sentences are given to the class, and the pupils are 
requested to select all the adverbs and write them on their slates. 

1. " The task is soon accomplished." 

2. " None are too wise to be mistaken." 

3. " He is well paid that is well satisfied." 

4. "The project, so happily formed, failed of success." 

5. " The wild bird that flies so lone and far has somewhere iU 
nest and brood." 

Turn to your readers and point out examples of adverbs. 
Write sentences containing seven or more adverbs. 

The teacher now writes ten or more adverbs on the board and re- 
quests the pupils to write sentences that contain them. 



PREPOSITIONS. 23 



THE PREPOSITION. 

16. When we say " It is a tree of large growth," what word 
shows the relation between tree and growth? 

Write this ivord on the board. 

When we say " He walks in the garden," what word shows, 
the relation between walks and garden? 

Write this word under the one on the board. 

What word in this sentence depends upon the word in, or is 
governed by it? 

Mention a number of words that are used to show the relation of 
the words which they govern to other words. 
Write them under the words on the board. 

Words of this class are called prepositions. 
Definition. 

A preposition is a word that is used to show the rela- 
tion of a noun or pronoun which it governs to some other 
word in the sentence ; as, U A man of wealth." " Ships 
sail on the ocean." 

This definition is written on the board and learned by the pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

The following sentences are given to the class, and the pupils are 
requested to select the prepositions and write them on their slates. 

1. "In all climates, spring is beautiful." 

2. " Live for something." 

3. "Children are placed in school by their parents for in- 
struction." 

4. " The light of the sun is reflected from the moon to the 
earth." 

5. " Well was he arm'd from head to heel 

In mail and plate of Milan steel." 

Open your readers and point out examples of prepositions. 



24 PREPARATORY LESSORS. 



at, 



Write sentences containing the prepositions over, for, with, 
from, by, behind. 

The teacher writes ten or more prepositions on the board and re- 
quests the pupils to write sentences that contain them. 

THE CONJUNCTION. 

17. In the sentence " I saw James or his brother," what word 
connects James and brother? 

Write this word on the board. 

When we say " James went to school, but John remained a 
home," what word connects the different parts of the sentence? 

Write this word under the one on the board. 

Name other words that are used to connect words or sentences. 

Write them in the column on the board. 

Words that are used to connect are called conjunctions. 

Definition. 
A conjunction is a word that is used to connect words 
or sentences; as, "Seven and five are twelve." " Straws 
swim on the surface, hut pearls lie at the bottom." 

This definition is written on the board and learned by the pupils. 



EXERCISE. 

The following sentences are given to the class, and the pupils are 
requested to select all the conjunctions and write them on their slates. 

1. " If spring has no blossoms, autumn will have no fruit." 

2. " They are poor because they are extravagant." 

3. " Do unto others as you would be done by." 

4. " Be great in act as you have been in thought." 

5. " Talk not too much, nor of thyself." 

6. " The first and the simplest emotion which we discover in 
the human mind is curiosity." 

Turn to your readers and point out examples of conjunctions. 
Write sentences containing seven or more conjunctions. 






INTERJECTIONS. 25 

The teacher writes ten or more conjunctions on the board and re- 
quests the pupils to write sentences that contain them. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

18. In the expression u Alas! I am undone," what word is 
used merely to express strong feeling or emotion? 

Write it on the board. 

Name other tvorcls that are used to express strong or sudden emotion. 

Write them under the word on the board. 

Words of this class are called interjections. 
Definition. 

An interjection is an exclamatory word that is used to 
express some strong or sudden emotion of the mind ; as, 
ah ! alas ! O ! oh ! 

This definition is written on the board and learned by the pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

The following examples are given to the class, and the pupils are 
requested to select all the interjections and write them on their slates. 

1. "0 wretched state!" 

2. " Hail, holy light!" 

3. " False wizard, avaunt!" 

4. "Oh! spare us yet awhile." 

Open your readers and select examples of interjections. 

Write sentences or phrases containing five or more interjections. 



GENERAL EXERCISE ON ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Let the following sentences be written on the board, # or read by the 
teacher for the pupils to copy. 

1. " The railroad dates back to Egypt." 

2. "Cease, every joy, to glimmer on my mind, 

But leave — oh ! leave the light of Hope behind." 
2 



26 PREPARATORY LESSONS. 

3. " This moment is a flower too fair and brief." — Moore. 

4. " Art thou a friend to Roderick?" 

5. " See how lightly he capers away!" 

6. " It is the one little sweet blossom that we earn by faithful 
work which we love best, after all." — Fanny Fern. 

Point out the nouns in these sentences; — the pronouns; — the adjec- 
tives; — the verbs; — the adverbs; — the prepositions ; — the conjunctions;— 
the interjections. 

Open your readers and point out examples of nouns; — of pronouns; — 
of adjectives; — of verbs; — of adverbs; — of prepositions; — of conjunc- 
tions ; — of interjections. 

The teacher now selects an easy lesson in one of the readers, and 
assigns ten lines for the pupils to study as a special exercise on the 
Parts of Speech. 

Let the first pupil in the class tell the part of speech to which the 
first word belongs ; the second pupil, that to which the second word be- 
longs ; and so on through the ten lines. 

[No attempt should be made, at this time, to explain points that have not yet been 
introduced.] 

Let the pupils be called on to write simple sentences which embrace 
all the parts of speech, placing an abbreviation over each word to indi- 
cate the class to which it belongs. Let the articles be distinguished from 
other adjectives by ar. 

MODEL, 
ar. n. v. adv. prep. ar. n. pro. v. conj. 

The wind blows violently among the trees. They bend and 

adv. v. ar. n. v. adv. adj. conj. pro. adv. 

almost break. The roots are very strong; but they sometimes 

v. prep. ar. n. prep. ar. n. inter, n. pro. v. pro. 

yield to the force of the wind. O John ! you frighten me. 

[Add similar exercises.] 






COMPOSITION. 

19. This subject may be pleasantly introduced by a 
few familiar questions. 

Did you ever write a composition? 






COMPOSITION. 27 

Do you think it is easy to write compositions? 

Would you like to write a composition? 

When you are talking, is what you say a composition? 

Composition means putting w T ords together. Do you put 
words together when you talk? 

What you say when you are talking is a spoken composition; 
and when you write down what you say or think, that is a 
written composition. You speak a great many compositions 
every day. 

Definition. 

Composition is the art of expressing our thoughts in 
appropriate language. 

This definition is written on the board and learned by the pupils. 

EXERCISE. 

Now let us see whether it is difficult or easy to write a com- 
position. All take your slates. 

Where are you? 

Write down what you have said. 

[Let the pupils be required to give their answers in complete sentences.] 

What do you see in the room? 

Write these answers directly after those which you wrote before. 

What do the scholars do? 
Write these answers. 

Why do they learn lessons? 
Write the answers. 

W T hat lessons do they learn? 
Write the answers. 

Why do they learn to read? 
Write the answers. 
Why do th«y learn geography? 
Write the answers. 



28 PREPARATORY LESSONS. 

You have now all written compositions on your slates. Has 
it been hard or easy to do it? 

The members of the class are called on to read what they have writ- 
ten. If any of them have incomplete sentences or other errors, these 
should be corrected. 

This lesson may be followed by a similar written exercise on a book, 
a house, a farm, or any other object. 

[A skillful teacher will have no difficulty in rendering composition as attractive aa 
any other exercise in school.] 



REVIEW. 

How many classes of words or parts of speech are there ? Give their 
names. 

Are there any words that do not belong to any of these eight classes? 
' To which class does the word school belong? What is a noun? 
Name several nouns. 

To which class do the words he, they, and who belong? What is a 
pronoun ? Give examples of pronouns. 

To which class do the words great and all belong ? What is an ad- 
jective ? Give examples of adjectives. 

To which class do the words talk and sit belong? What is a verb? 
Name several verbs. 

To which class do gently and very belong? What is an adverb? 
Give examples of adverbs. 

To which class do the words of and by belong ? What is a preposi- 
tion ? Give examples of prepositions. 

To which class do if and but belong? What is a conjunction? Give 
examples of conjunctions. 

To which class does alas belong? What is an interjection? Give 
examples of interjections. 

Define composition. What is spoken composition? Written com- 
position ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. 



20. English Grammar is the science which treats of 
the structure and use of the English language. 

If we wish to know how to use language correctly, we must 
learn how its different parts are put together, and how it is 
used by good speakers and writers. 

Composition is the art of expressing our thoughts in 
appropriate language. 

We first learn to use language by hearing others talk and by 
talking with them. 

If we wish to improve rapidly in learning to speak and write, 
we must listen attentively to those who employ good language 
in speaking, and use the best language we can command when 
we speak ourselves. We must read with care what good authors 
have written, and have frequent and careful practice in writing 
our own thoughts. 

The study of grammar is also a great help if we apply every- 
thing we learn in written exercises of our own ; but if we study 
grammar without such written exercises, it will do us very little 
good. See § 27. 



REVIEW. 

Define English Grammar. Define Composition. How do we first 
learn the use of language ? Best means of improvement in the use of 
language. 

29 



ETYMOLOGY. 



21. Etymology is that part of grammar which treats 
of the classification of words, their derivation, and their 
various properties and modifications. 

Derivation is that part of etymology which treats of the 
origin and primary signification of words. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



22. The words of our language are divided into eight 
classes, called parts of speech. 

The parts of speech are the noun, the adjective, the 
pronoun, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the 
conjunction, and the interjection. 



■ 



REVIEW. 

Of what does etymology treat? What are the different classes of 
words called? Name .the parts of speech. 



THE NOUN. 

[See Preparatory Lessons, § 5.] 

23. A noun* is a word that is used as a name: 

Chicago, man, wisdom. 



K Noun is derived from the Latiu word nomen, which signifies a name. 

30 






PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 31 

This part of speech not only embraces the names of material 
objects, as horse, tree, carriage; but it also includes the name of 
everything that we can think of, as life, hope, thought, honor. 



PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS. 

Note. — The study of grammar should always be made a means of 
intellectual training. Most of the elementary principles of grammar 
are learned by children as they learn the language. They understand 
and apply the distinction between proper and common nouns, and the 
distinctions of gender, number, person, case, mode, tense, etc., long be- 
fore they recite a lesson in grammar. This previously acquired knowl- 
edge may be made an important instrument in enlisting the interest of 
the pupils and making them, to a great extent, their own instructors, 
under the general guidance and direction of the teacher. 

Every new division of a subject which the pupils learn for the first 
time should be accompanied by a preparatory exercise, and this exer- 
cise should be so shaped as to draw out from the minds of the pupils 
what they already know, and lead them, as far as possible, to make their 
own definitions and rules. 

24. George, boy. January, month. 

Jane, girl. Philadelphia, city. 

Examine the foregoing ivords and tell what difference you discover 
between the two words of each pair. 

George is a name given to a particular boy, to distinguish him 
from other boys; but bog is a name that may be applied to 
George, or John, or Henry, or any other of the whole class of 
boys. Philadelphia is a name given to a particular city, to dis- 
tinguish it from all other cities; but city is a name that may be 
applied to Philadelphia, or Boston, or London, or Paris, or any 
other of the whole class of cities. 

Names that are applied to particular persons, places, etc., 
form one class of nouns, called proper nouns ; and names that 
are applied to all persons or things of the same kind form an- 
other class, called common nouns. 



32 



ETYMOLOGY. 



JSTouns are of two kinds, proper and common. 

A proper noun is a nane that is used to distinguish 

one person or thing from all others of the same class : 

Charles, London, Ontario, Tuesday, October, the Andes, the Jews, 
Thomas Jefferson. 

A common noun is a name that may be applied to 
any person or thing of the same class : 
Boy, city, lake, month, mountain, nation. 
Which of the following nouns are proper ? Which common ? 

Coach, Boston, Apennines, wisdom, glass, January, star, people, 
James, England. 

Name other proper nouns; — common nouns. 

What is your own proper name? Mention three or more common 
names by which you may be called. 

Capital Letters. 

25. Proper nouns and titles of honor or distinction 

should commence with capital letters: 

Benjamin Franklin; the city of London; Sir William Herschel; 
Alexander the Great; George the Fourth. See § 115. 



William 
Boston 
The Andes, 
The Missouri 



Easter 
Christmas 
Halloween 
Thanksgiving 



EXERCISE. 

January 
March 
July 
December 



spring 
summer 
autumn 
winter 



Monday 
Wednesday 
Thursday 
Saturday 

grammar 
arithmetic 



geography 
history 

Write sentences containing words from each of these columns, using 
capitals when required. 



February, spelling, Frederic the Great, May-day, summer, 
Lord Clive, Friday, Edward the Sixth. 

Write sentences containing the foregoing words and phrases. 



COMMON NOUNS. 33 

Write sentences containing proper nouns and titles of honor or distinc- 
tion. 

26. Common nouns include also the particular classes called 
verbal and collective. 

A verbal noun is a form of a verb used as a noun: 

"We often gain time by waiting." "To toil is the common lot of 
man." 

A participle used as a noun is also called a participial noun. 

A collective noun denotes a collection of objects taken 
together: 

Herd, flock, assembly. 

Which of the following nouns are verbal ? Which collective? 

Army, crowd, reading, multitude, to read, herd. 

Name three or more verbal nouns ; — three or more collective nouns. 

EXERCISE. 

1. " Pekin is the largest city in Asia/' 

2. "The water in seas and oceans is never still. " 

3. " The people were of one mind." 

4. " The tops of the highest mountains are covered with snow 
at all seasons of the year." 

5. " To err is human." 

6. " Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus." 

7. " No entertainment is so cheap as reading, nor any pleasure 
so lasting." — Lady M. W. Montague. 

8. "The great man is he who, in the midst of the crowd, 
keeps with perfect sweetness the independence of solitude." — 
Emerson. 

Point out the nouns in the foregoing sentences. 

Which are proper ? Which common ? Which of the common nouns 
are verbal ? Which collective ? 

Tarn to your readers and point out examples of common nouns; — of 
proper nouns; — of collective nouns. 

Write sentences containing common and proper nouns; — containing 
verbal nouns; — collective nouns. Tell the class to which each noun 
belongs. 



COMPOSITION. 



Lessons in Composition, written and oral, are inter- 
spersed through the work, to be carried forward as a 
parallel course, .in connection with the lessons in Gram- 
mar, which are also illustrated by copious written and 
oral exercises. 

COPIOUSNESS AND ACCURACY. 

27. Copiousness and accuracy are best acquired by noting 
carefully the exact meaning and correct use of words, as they are 
employed by good speakers and writers, and by bringing them, 
as far as practicable, into actual use. No word can be said to 
be fully mastered till the pupil has illustrated its exact meaning 
in a sentence of his own. 

Pupils should be taught that if they are to acquire a rich and 
copious vocabulary of words, they must form a fixed purpose that 
they will never allow a word which they do not understand to 
pass without learning its meaning from a dictionary or other- 
wise. 

This rule should be applied to all the reading exercises of the 
school, and the pupils should understand that no reading lesson 
is properly prepared till they are able to explain and use any 
word contained in it. 

COMPOSITION EXERCISE I. 

STUDY OF WORDS. 

Let the teacher assign a page in a reader to be used as a lesson on 
words. Let the pupils study it carefully, giving special attention to the 
meaning and use of all the more difficult and important words. If there 
are any words they do not understand, let them lo®k out their meaning 
in a dictionary, and notice also their meaning in the selection. 

34 



NOUNS GENDER. 35 

As a class exercise, let the selection be read sentence by sentence, and 
let each pupil be called on to give the meaning of an important or diffi- 
cult word and embody it in a sentence of his own. 

Let the pupils point out the nouns and name the class to which each 
belongs. 

Continue the exercise till all the difficult and important words are 
explained and used by the pupils. 

Properties. 

28. The grammatical properties of nouns are gender, 
person, number, and case. 

GENDER. 

29. Boy, girl, child, tree. 

Man, woman, person, house. 
Uncle, aunt, friend, carriage. 

What distinction in regard to sex do you discover in each of the fore- 
going sets of words ? 

Give other examples of nouns denoting males; — denoting females ; — of 
nouns that are applicable to both sexes; — of nouns that denote neither 
males nor females. 

The distinction which denotes sex is called gender. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns and pronouns in 
regard to sex. 

There are four genders ; the masculine, the feminine, 
the common, and the neuter. 

1. Nouns that denote males are of the masculine 
gender : 

Boy, son, king, uncle. 

2. Nouns that denote females are of the feminine 
gender : 

Woman, daughter, wife, niece, queen. 



36 ETYMOLOGY. 

3. Nouns that are applicable alike to both sexes are of 
the common gender : 

Parent, child, friend, scholar. 

4. Nouns that denote neither males nor females are of 
the neuter gender : 

House, air, knife, health, wind, paper, knowledge. 

30. By a figure of speech called personification, gender is some- 
times attributed to objects without sex. Thus, the sun, time, death, tear, 
etc., are usually considered as masculine ; and the earth, a ship, virtue, 
night, etc., are generally considered as feminine. 

31. The distinction between males and females is expressed 
in three different ways: 

1. By the use of different words : 

Brother, sister; earl, countess; father, mother; gentleman, lady; 
husband, wife; king, queen; nephew, niece; son, daughter; 
uncle, aunt. 

2. By a difference of termination : 

Actor, actress; administrator, administratrix; author, authoress; 
czar, czarina; duke, duchess; emperor, empress; executor, 
executrix; hero, heroine ; lion, lioness; marquis, marchioness; 
poet, poetess ; prince, princess ; testator, testatrix. 

3. By prefixing another word : 

He-goat, she-goat ; man-servant, maid-servant. 



EXERCISE. 

Give the gender of each of the following nouns: 

Apple, James, hand, sister, friend, grass, gentleman, wife, 
mother, boy, carpet. 

Name three nouns in the masculine gender; — three in the feminine; — 
three in the common; — three in the neuter. 

Give the corresponding feminines to the following masculine nouns: 
Brother, gentleman, king, son, actor, duke, hero. 






NOUNS — PERSON. 37 

Give the corresponding masculines to the following feminine nouns: 

Wife, aunt, administratrix, czarina, marchioness, princess, 
maid-servant. 

Open your readers and point out nouns in the masculine gender; — in 
the feminine; — in the common; — in the neuter. 

Write sentences containing nouns in each of the four genders. 



PERSON. 

32. " I, John, wrote the letter." 
11 James, bring me the letter." 
" William saw the letter." 

Examine these three sentences, and tell ivhat differences you discover 
in the relations of the nouns John, James, and William. 

Which represents the speaker ? Which the person spoken to ? 
Which the person or thing spoken of ? 

Give other examples of nouns that represent the speaker; — the person 
addressed ;— the person or thing spoken of. 

The distinction which marks these different relations is called 
person. 

Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
distinguishes the speaker, the person or thing addressed, 
and the person or thing spoken of. 

Nouns have three persons ; the first, the second, and 
the third. 

The first person denotes the person speaking : 
41 I, the subscriber, give this testimony." 

The second person denotes the person or thing spoken 
to: 

"Henry, will you assist me ? " " Come, gentle spring" 

The third person denotes the person or thing spoken 
of: 

" The farmer sows his seed" "Dependence and obedience belong 
to youth" 



38 ETYMOLOGY. 



EXERCISE. 

1. "These are thy glorious works, parent of good!" — Milton. 

2. " We, the people of these colonies." 

3. " Haste makes waste." 

4. "I, Samuel Johnson, hereby agree to surrender all my 
claims.'" 

5. " There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, 

Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. 11 — Shakspeare. 

Which of the nouns in the foregoing examples are in the first person ? 
In the second ? In the third ? 

Take any of your books and point out nouns in the first person; — in 
the second; — in the third. 

Write sentences containing one or more nouns in the first person ; — one 
or more in the second; — three or more in the third. 



NUMBER. 

33. Tree, trees; child, children; life, lives; box, boxes. 

Examine the foregoing examples and tell what difference you discover 
between the two words of each pair. 

Which of them denote single objects ? Which denote more objects than 
one? 

Name other words that denote single objects; — words that denote more 
objects than one. 

This distinction is called number. 

Number is the distinction of one from more than one. 
Nouns have two numbers ; the singular and the 
plural. 

The singular number denotes but one : 

Day, book, window. 

The plural number denotes more than one : 

Days, books, windows. 



NOUNS — NUMBER. 39 

34. The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding s or 
es to the singular : 

Pen, pens ; month, months ; church, churches. 

In forming the plural of pen we add s, and say pens. But if 
we attempt to form the plural of church by adding s, we make the 
word churchs, which cannot be pronounced without difficulty, be- 
cause the sound of s will not unite with the sound of ch. Hence, 

Words ending in a sound that will unite with the sound of s, 
form the plural by adding s only : 

Herd, herds ; tree, trees. 

Words ending in a sound that will not unite with the sound 
of s, form the plural by adding es: 

Fox, foxes ; lash, lashes. 

35. Some nouns form the plural irregularly : 

Man, men ; child, children ; mouse, mice ; tooth, teeth ; foot, feet ; 
goose, geese ; cargo, cargoes ; hero, heroes ; loaf, loaves ; knife, 
knives ; lady, ladies. 

Some nouns are used only in the plural: 
Allies, dregs, embers, goods, manners. 

Some nouns are used only in the singular: 
Gold, silver, wheat, pride, wisdom. 

Some nouns have the same form in both numbers: 
Deer, sheep, series, bellows. 

Give the plural of the following nouns: 

Table, bird, hero, prize, child, memento, sheep, loaf, lash, tooth, 
lecture, success, speech. 

Name nouns that are used only in the plural; — that are used only in 
the singular; — that have the same form in both numbers. 

36. Many nouns adopted from foreign languages retain their 
original plurals: 

Axis, axes ; beau, beaux ; basis, bases ; crisis, crises ; ellipsis, el- 
lipses; erratum, errata; focus, foci; genus, genera; nebula, 
nebulas; oasis, oases; radius, radii ; stratum, strata; vortex, vor- 
tices; phenomenon, phenomena. 



40 ETYMOLOGY. 

Give the plural of the following nouns: 
Basis, ellipsis, oasis, phenomenon. 

37. When a proper name and a title are taken together as 
one compound noun, good writers most frequently annex the 
plural termination to the title only: 

The Misses Smith. 

In ordinary conversation the plural termination is most fre- 
quently added to the name and not to the title: 

The Miss Smiths. 

EXERCISE. 

Give the number of each of the following nouns: 

House, manners, crisis, uncle, taxes, knives, pride, feet, pleas- 
ure, ashes, gold, embers, strata. 

Give the plural of the following nouns: 

Carriage, foot, brother, radius, deer, lady, fox, garden, ellipsis. 

Open your readers and point out five or more nouns in the singular 
number;— five or more in the plural; — five or more nouns that form the 
plural by adding s; — five or more that form the plural by adding es; — • 
five or more that form the plural irregularly, 

Write sentences containing plural nouns that end in es; — plural nouns 
that end in ies; — nouns that have the same form in both numbers; — that 
are used only in the singular; — that are used only in the plural. 



COMPOSITION. 

DIRECTIONS FOR WRITTEN COMPOSITION. 

38. 1. Let the writing be in a plain, neat hand. 

2. Write the subject or title in a bold, heavy hand, two lines 
above the composition, and commence each important word with 
a capital. 

3. Commence the lines so as to leave a margin of about half 
an inch at the left hand of each page. 



COMPOSITION. 41 

4. Divide your composition into paragraphs. See § 277. 
When you have finished the first complete thought, or division 
of the subject, commence the next with a new paragraph, and 
so on. Commence the first line of each paragraph half an inch 
farther from the edge than the other lines. 

5. Take special care to have all words spelled correctly. 
Every pupil should have a dictionary constantly at hand to 
settle any questions of doubt that may arise. 

6. Correct punctuation and the correct use of capital letters 
should be regarded as an essential part of every exercise in 
composition. 

7. If you wish to distinguish particular words or phrases, for 
the sake of emphasis or for any other reason, it can be done by 
underlining them; but this distinction is generally marked by 
the sense, and underlining should in most cases be avoided. 

COMPOSITION EXERCISE II. 

A GARDEN. 

Write ten or more lines on a garden, — its situation; inclosure; uses; 
how made; care required ; what cultivated in it; different kinds of flowers; 
foliage; climbing vines; walks; borders; vegetable gardens. Use as 
many of these topics as you wish, or any others that you can think of. 

Let the pupils review their work ; apply the Directions for Composi- 
tion ; and, as far as practicable, correct their own errors before coming 
to the class. Erroneous and inelegant expressions, which escape the 
pupil's notice while writing, become evident when the composition is 
carefully read afterward; and many improvements may be made, espe- 
cially in the choice and arrangement of words, by the writer's becoming 
his own critic. 

It will often be found desirable to save time by having the pupils 
pass their papers in the class and correct each other's work. 

It is important that the papers should come at last under the eye of 
the teacher, as far as time permits. The errors that occur most fre- 
quently should be made the subject of special remark in the class. The 
best forms and modes of expression should be pointed out and com- 
mended ; and words badly chosen or badly arranged should be pointed 
out and better forms of expression substituted for them. 

Let the pupils give the number of each of the nouns in their compo- 
sitions. 



42 ETYMOLOGY. 



CASE. 



39. John's book. John saw James. James saw John. The 
boy's hat. The boy ran. He called the boy. 

Examine these sentences and tell what changes you observe in the form 
or relation of the words John and boy. Which forms denote possession ? 
In which example is John used as the subject of the verb ? In which is. 
John used as the object of the verb ? In ivhich is boy used as the subject 
of the verb ? In ivhich is boy used as the object of the verb ? 

These different relations of nouns are called cases. 






Case is the relation of nouns and pronouns to other 
words. 

Nouns have four cases ; the nominative, the possess- 
ive, the objective, and the independent.* 

40. The nominative case denotes the subject of a 

finite verb : 

"Birds fly." "Life is short." Birds is here the subject of the verb 
fly, and Life the subject of the verb is. See § 174. 

41. The possessive case denotes ownership or pos- 
session : 

"John's book." " The sun's rays." 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case always sustains the relation 
of an adjective to the following noun. 

42. The possessive singular of nouns is generally formed by 
adding an apostrophe with the letter s to the nominative : f 

Nom. man; poss. man's. 



* Several of the later British grammarians recognize a dative case in English, 
denoting the indirect object ; as, k * He told them the truth.'" "I wrote him a letter,*'' 
11 Give me the book. 1 * 

t The sign 's is a contraction of the Saxon termination es. Thus matVs., king's^ 
were formerly written marines, hinges. 






NOUNS — CASE. 43 

The possessive of singular nouns ending in the sound of s or 
z, is sometimes formed by adding only the apostrophe: 

u 3f oses' disciples." " For conscience' sake." 

Plural nouns ending in s, form the possessive by adding an 
apostrophe only: 

Norn, fathers ; poss. fathers*. 

Plural nouns that do not end in s, form the possessive by 
adding both the apostrophe and s: 

Nom. men; poss. men's. 

Write the possessive forms of the following nouns: 

Boy, day, book, brothers, children. 

Possession is often expressed by the use of the preposition of, 
with an objective case. Thus, for "Mans wisdom," we say "The 
wisdom of man.''' 

43. The objective case denotes the object of a tran- 
sitive verb, or of a preposition : 

"The sun warms the earth." "The roof of the house." Earth is 
the object of the transitive verb warms, and house is the object 
of the preposition of. See §§ 208, 230. 

44. The independent case denotes that the noun or 
pronoun is used absolutely, having no dependence on any 
other word : 

" There is no terror, Cassius, in your threat." " The treaty being 
concluded, the council was dissolved." " Webster's Dictionary." 
"Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead! " 

"My friends, do they now and then send 
A wish or a thought after me ? " — Coioper. 

The nominative, objective, and independent cases of nouns are the 
same in form, being distinguished only by their relation to other words. 



44 



ETYMOLOGY* 



DECLENSION. 

45. To decline a noun is to express its cases and numbers. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural 


Horn. 


Father 


fathers 


Man 


men 


Poss. 


Father's 


fathers' 


Man's 


men's 


Obj. 


Father 


fathers 


Man 


men 


Ind. 


Father 


fathers 


Man 


men 






EXERCISE. 





1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 



" The city of Carthage was founded by Dido." 
" The elephant is the largest of quadrupeds." 
" A wise man's anger is of short continuance." 
" Irving's works. 

" Now, night descending, the proud scene was o'er." 
"Alas! poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio; 
A fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy.' ' 

— Shakspeare. 

Point out the nouns in the foregoing sentences and phrases and give 
the case of each. 

Take your readers and point out nouns in the nominative case; — in the 
possessive; — in the objective; — in the independent. 

Write sentences containing three or more nouns in the nominative case; — 
three or more in the possessive; — three or more in the objective; — two or 
more in the independent. Point out the nouns of each case* 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE III. 

STUDY OF WORDS. 

Many words have several distinct meanings and uses, and each 
>f these meanings must be carefully noted and correctly applied. 
Thus we have cleave, to adhere closely, and cleave, to split; rest, 
repose, and rest, remainder. 

Mail, plate, mortal, pale, kind, will. 

Write definitions explaining the different meanings of each of these 
words, and write sentences illustrating each of their meanings and uses. 






COMPOSITION. 45 



REVIEW. 

What is a noun? Examples. A proper noun? Examples. A com- 
mon noun? Examples. A verbal noun? Examples. A collective 
noun ? Examples. 

What nouns commence with capitals ? 

What properties belong to nouns? Define gender. What are the 
different genders ? Define each and give examples. 

In what different ways is the distinction between males and females 
expressed ? 

Define Person. What persons have nouns? Define each and give 
examples. 

Define Number. What numbers have nouns ? Define each and give 
examples. 

How is the plural of nouns generally formed? 

Define Case. What cases have nouns ? Define each and give exam- 
pies. How is the possessive singular of nouns generally formed ? 
Examples. How do plural nouns ending in s form the possessive? 
Examples. Plural nouns that do not end in s ? Examples. Define and 
illustrate Declension. 

What directions should be observed in writing compositions ? 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE IV. 

CONVERSATION. 

The art of conversation is essential to every one ; 
and the ability to converse well is an attainment of the 
highest value. 

A BOOK. 

Let the pupils prepare themselves for a conversation on this subject. 

Things to talk about. — Principal parts of which a book is com- 
posed; different kinds of binding, and the materials of which 
covers are made; peculiarity of Russia leather; leaves and covers, 
how fastened; glue, paste, and other adhesive substances; letter- 
ing of back and sides; gold-leaf; printer; bookbinder; printers 1 
ink; different kinds of books, terms folio, quarto, etc.; author, 
compiler, editor; publisher; bookseller; copyright; editions; 



46 ETYMOLOGY. 

title-page; frontispiece; preface; dedication; table of contents; 
index; running title; margin; signatures at the bottom of the 
pages; paragraphs; uses of books; books most read; pupils' 
favorite books; invention of printing; books before printing 
was invented; privilege of meeting great and good men in their 
books; libraries; selection of books, etc. 

Note. — A copious list of topics is here given for this first exercise in 
conversation, from which selections will be made as inclination or cir- 
cumstances may lead. In future exercises of this kind it will generally 
be better to assign only the subject in advance, and leave the various 
divisions and topics under it to be brought out in the class. 

Let the pupils understand that in every conversational exercise they 
are to employ the best language possible. 

THE PRONOUN. 

[See Preparatory Lessons, § 7.] 

46. A pronoun* is a word that is used instead of a 
noun : 

"When Caesar had conquered Gaul, he turned Ms arms against 
Ma country." 

The word which is represented by a pronoun is called its antecedent. 

47. Pronouns, like nouns, have gender, person, number, and 
case. 

8. Pronouns are divided into three classes; — per- 
sonal, relative, and interrogative. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Of what person is the pronoun we ? Is it always of the first person t 
Of what person is he ? Is this always of the third person ? 
Of what person is IP Is 1 always of the first person ? 
When we say "I who speak," of what person is who ? Of what per- 
son is who in "You who speak ?" Of what person in "He who speaks T % 

* The word pronoun is derived from two Latin words, pro and nomen, which 
signify /or a name. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 47 

Is who always of the same person ? Is which always of the same 
person ? 

Of the pronouns he, we, who, it, which, me, which are always of 
the same person, and which are not ? 

Pronouns that are always of the same person are called 
personal pronouns. 

49. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows 
its person by its form. 

The personal pronouns are I, thou or you, he, she, 
and it, with their plurals, we, ye or you, and they. I 
is of the first person ; thou or you is of the second ; and 
he, she, and it are of the third. 

The pronoun I should be a capital. 

DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

50. First Person. 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. I we 

Poss. My or mine our 

Obj. Me us 

I nd. Me or I we 

Second Person. — Solemn Style. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Thou ye or you 

Poss. Thy or thine your 

Obj. Thee you 

Ind. Thou ye or you 

The pronoun thou is employed in addressing the Deity, in the sacred 
Scriptures, and in poetry. It also occurs in other solemn or impas- 
sioned writings, and it is still used in common discourse by the Society 
of Friends. 

Second Person. — Common Style. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. You you 

Poss. Your your 

Obj. You you 

Ind. You you 





Masculine. 


s 


'ingular. 


Plural 


Nom. 


He 


they 


Poss. 


His 


their 


Obj. 


Him 


them 


Ind. 


He 


they 



48 ETYMOLOGY. 

The word you was originally plural in signification; but it is 
now universally employed to represent either a singular or a 
plural noun. 

Third Person. 

Feminine. Neuter. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

She they It they 

Her their Its their 

Her them It them 

She they It they 

Give the person, number, and case of each of the following pronouns: 
We, he, she, they, it, his, them, me, thee, thou, their, us. 

What personal pronoun is in the third person singular, masculine 
gender, and possessive case ? In the second person singular, solemn style, 
and objective case ? In the second person plural, nominative case ? In 
the first person plural, objective case ? In the first person singular, pos- 
sessive case ? In the second person plural, nominative case ? In the third 
person singular, neuter gender, possessive case ? In the second person 
singular, common style, nominative case ? In the third person singular, 
feminine gender, nominative case ? In the first person plural, possessive 
case? 

Give the person, number, and case of him ; — me ; — its ; — she ; — 
them ; — us ;— we ; — my ; — thee. 

51. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs are pos- 
sessive pronouns, used in construction either as nominatives 
or objectives: 

"Your pleasures are past, mine are to come." Here the word 
mine, which is used as a substitute for my pleasures, is the sub- 
ject of the verb are. 

Form sentences containing three possessive pronouns used as nomina- 
tives; — three used as objectives. 

52. The words myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, 
and itself, with their plurals, ourselves, yourselves, and them- 
selves, are called compound personal pronouns. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 49 

Compound personal pronouns are frequently joined to nouns 
and simple pronouns to express emphasis: 

"You yourselves are the contrivers of your own ruin/' "The 
mountains themselves decay with years." 

They are also used when the subject and the object of the 
verb both represent the same person or thing: 

" I blame myself" not " I blame me" I and myself here denote 
the same person, and we use the compound pronoun. 

Form sentences containing compound personal pronouns used for em- 
phasis; — used when the subject and object both represent the same person 
or thing. 

EXERCISE. 

1. "Theirs is the chance." 

2. "He loves no other land so much as that of his adoption." 

3. "Old Hundred, they say, was constructed out of fragments 
as old as music itself. 1 ' 

4. "I love to lose myself in other men's minds. " — Lamb. 

5. " It is not known how the Egyptians embalmed their dead." 

6. " Wouldst thou subject all things to thyself, subject thyself 
to reason.'* 

7. " If you snap the golden threads of thought, they will float 
aw^ay on the air like the film of the gossamer, and I shall never 
be able to recover them. 1 ' — Longfellow. 

8. " To bear is to conquer our fate. 11 — Campbell. 

Point out the personal pronouns in the foregoing sentences, with their 
antecedents. 

Give the person, number, gender, and case of each. 

Which are possessive pronouns ? How used ? 

Which are compound personal pronouns ? How used ? 

Take your readers and point out personal pronouns in each of the dif- 
ferent persons, numbers, genders, and cases. 

Write sentences containing personal pronouns in each of the different 
persons, numbers, genders, and cases; — sentences containing possessive 
pronouns used as nominatives and objectives; — sentences containing com- 
pound personal pronouns used for emphasis ; — sentences containing com- 
pound personal pronouns when the subject and object both represent the 
same person or thing. 
3 



50 ETYMOLOGY. 

COMPOSITION EXERCISE V. 

STUDY OF WORDS. 

Grave, register, lay, carriage, order, bank. 

Write definitions explaining the different meanings of each of these 
words; and write sentences illustrating their meanings and uses. 



RELATIVE PRONOUN'S. 

53. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents 
an antecedent word or phrase, and connects different 
clauses of a sentence : 

" We honor the men who make sacrifices for the benefit of others." 

The connective office of a relative pronoun should be care- 
fully observed. Thus, in the sentence " We honor the 
men who make sacrifices for the benefit of others," the 
relative pronoun who is the subject of the verb make in 
one of the clauses ; and it relates to men, which is the 
object of the verb honor in the other clause. A relative 
pronoun always relates to some word out of the clause 
in which it stands, and thus joins the two clauses together. 

54. The words used as relative pronouns are who, 
which, that, and what. 

Who is applied to persons, and which to irrational animals 
and things without life: 

" The man who is accustomed to reflect finds instruction in every- 
thing." " I have found the book which was lost." 

That is often used in place of either who or which: 

" This is the same man that I saw." " I have destroyed the letter 
that was sent me." 



RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 51 

55. Who, which, and that are thus declined: 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu. 
Norn. Who Which That 

Poss. Whose Whose Whose 

Obj. Whom Which That 

Ind. Who Which 

Form sentences containing three relative pronouns. Designate t\ 
relatives and point out their antecedents. 

56. The word what is often used as a compound relative 
pronoun, equivalent in signification to that which or those 

which : 

" One man admires what [that which] displeases another." 

What is here used to represent both the antecedent and the 
relative. As antecedent, it is the object of the verb admires; 
and as relative it is the subject of displeases. 

Form sentences containing compound relative pronouns. 

57. What sometimes performs at once the office of an 
adjective and a pronoun: 

" What time remained was well employed." 

As an adjective, what here qualifies time; as a pronoun it is 
the subject of the verb remained. 

58. Whoever, whichever, whatever, and whosoever, which- 
soever, whatsoever, are also used as compound pronouns, and 
parsed in the same manner as the compound what. Thus, in 
the sentence " Whoever disregards the laws of his being must 
suffer the penalty,'' whoever is the subject of the two verbs, 
disregards and must suffer. 

59. Which, what, and that are sometimes used as adjec- 
tives : 

" For which reason ? " u What tongue can tell ? " 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

60. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is 
used in asking a question : 

44 Who is this ? " 44 What can he do ? " 



52 ETYMOLOGY. 

The words used as interrogative pronouns are who, 
which, and what. 

Form sentences containing three interrogative pronouns. 

EXERCISE. 

i. u He who promises runs in debt." 

2. " There is a secret pride in every human heart that revolts 
at tyranny.' 1 — Hazlitt. 

3. " Among the mutilated poets of antiquity there is none 
whose fragments are so beautiful as those of Sappho/ 1 — Addi- 
son. 

4. " Who first sailed around the world ?" 

5. " It is the man who determines the dignity of the occupa- 
tion ; not the occupation which measures the dignity of the 
man. 11 — Charming. 

6. " Who was Louis XIV, and what was his character? ' 

7. "A pronoun is sometimes followed by the noun to which 
it refers. 11 

8. " Weigh not so much what men say as what they prove." 
— Sir Philip Sidney. 

Point out the relative pronouns in the foregoing sentences, and their 
antecedents. 

Point out the compound relative pronouns ; — the interrogative pronouns. 

Open your readers and point out relative pronouns, and tell what words 
they represent. Point out interrogative pronouns. 

Write sentences containing relative pronouns in the nominative, possess- 
ive, and objective cases; — containing what used as a compound relative 
pronoun; — containing interrogative pronouns. 



REVIEW. 

Define a Pronoun. Examples. What is the antecedent of a pronoun ? 
What properties have pronouns that correspond with the properties of 
nouns? Into what classes are pronouns divided ? 

Define a Personal Pronoun. Illustrate this definition. Name the 
personal pronouns, and give the person of each. What form of letter 
should be used for the pronoun If Decline the pronoun /. Decline 



COMPOSITION. 53 

thou. When is thou employed ? Decline you. What was the original 
use of you? Decline he; she; it. What of the pronouns mine, thine, 
etc. ? Illustrate their use. Which are the compound personal pronouns ? 
Illustrate their use. 

Define a Relative Pronoun. Examples. Illustrate the connective office 
of relatives. What words are used as relative pronouns ? What are the 
applications of who and which? Examples. What is the use of that? 
Examples. Decline who; which; that. Double offices of what. Exam- 
ples of each. 

Define an Interrogative Pronoun. Which are the interrogatives ? 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE VI. 

CONVERSATION. 

Let Objects Seen on the Way to School be assigned as the subject for a 
lesson in conversation. 

Let one of the pupils introduce the conversation by speaking of any 
object or incident that attracted his attention, and let others follow with 
remarks on the same subject, or remarks suggested by it. Continue the 
conversation by a general interchange of views, inquiries, etc., passing 
in an eas} T and familiar manner from one subject to another; and all the 
members of the class should understand that they are expected to take 
part in the exercise. 

Note. — The teacher should join occasionally in the conversation, and 
call out pupils that lack confidence in themselves by question or other- 
wise. If any of the pupils incline to occupy more than their share of 
the time, they should be kindly checked. The teacher and the pupils 
should share in the responsibility of making the exercise both animated 
and interesting. At the close of the exercise the teacher should call 
attention to any points of special excellence or imperfection in the con- 
versation. When special defects are to be pointed out, the teacher should, 
as far as practicable, avoid personal censure. If pupils put forth their 
best efforts, they are to be commended and encouraged, even though their 
first attempts are not very successful ; but carelessness and lack of effort 
are not to be indulged. 



54 ETYMOLOQY. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

[See Preparatory Lessons, §§ 12, 13.] 

61. An adjective* is a word that is used to qualify or 
limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun : 

Ripe fruit; ten clays; all men. "They are industrious" 

62. Adjectives are divided into two general classes ; 
qualifying and limiting. 

A qualifying adjective is one that expresses some 
quality or property of the noun or pronoun to which it 
belongs : 

A dutiful child; a faithful friend; large trees. 

A limiting adjective is one that defines or limits the 
meaning of the noun or pronoun to which it belongs : 

Three days ; these books ; the lesson ; all men. 

ARTICLES. 

63. The limiting adjectives a or an and the are called 
articles. 

A or anf is called the indefinite article, because it 
does not indicate any particular person or thing : 
A book. 

A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound : 
A tree, a house, a union, a youth, a world. 

An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound : 
An eagle, an hour, an outline. 

* The word adjective is derived from the Latin word adjectus, which signifies 
added to. 

t A or an is the Saxon word an or ane y signifying one. 



ADJECTIVES —CLASSES. 55 

The is called the definite article, because it indicates 
some particular person or thing : 

The book. 

Which of the adjectives in the following phrases are qualifying? 
Which limiting ? 

Which are articles? 

Tall trees ; red apples ; those hours ; twenty years ; the stars ; 
great occasions; this time; another day; beautiful scenery; an 
occasion of joy. 

Name Jive or more qualifying adjectives; — five or more limiting. 

64. Adjectives are also divided into several other classes, of 
which the following are the most important. 

1. A proper adjective is one that is derived from a proper 
name: 

American, Ciceronian. 

Proper adjectives should commence with capital letters: 

The Elizabethan age; the German language; a Grecian sculptor. 
See § 115. 

2. A numeral adjective is one that is used to express num- 
ber: 

One, two, three; first, second, third. 

One, two, three, etc, are also denominated cardinal adjectives ; 
and first, second, third, etc., ordinal adjectives. 

3. A pronominal adjective is a word that partakes of the 
nature of the pronoun and the adjective: 

This, these, another. 

When a pronominal adjective is used to limit a noun expressed, it 
is parsed as an adjective; but when it is employed to represent 
a noun understood, it is parsed as a pronoun. . Thus, in the 
sentence " Some cried one thing and some another," one is parsed 
as an adjective; but in the sentence " Every one has his peculiar 
trials," the word one represents a noun understood, and is parsed 
as a pronoun." See § 169. 



56 ETYMOLOGY. 

The principal pronominal adjectives are eacn, either, neither, 
this, that, these, those, all, any, one, other, another, none, some, 
such, same, both, several, few, much, many. 

4. A verbal adjective is a participle that is used as an adjec- 
tive : 

The rising sun. 

Rising is a participle, from the verb to rise; but it is here 
used as an adjective, qualifying sun. 

Verbal adjectives are also called participial adjectives. 

Which of the following adjectives commence with capital letters ? Why ? 
Which are numeral adjectives ? Which pronominal ? Which verbal ? 

French, five, Spanish, boiling water, tenth, the, worthy, other, 
Alpine, these, heated iron, German, any, all, great, many, twenty- 
nine, English. 

Name five or more proper adjectives; — five or more numeral adjec- 
tives; — five or more pronominal adjectives; — five or more verbal adjec- 
tives. 

With what form of letters do proper adjectives commence ? 



EXERCISE. 

1. " A few tattered huts stand among shapeless masses of 
masonry where glorious Carthage stood." 

2. " The English language has undergone many changes since 
the time of Shakspeare." 

3. " Heated air rises.'" 

4. " Numbers are expressed by ten Arabic characters. ' 

5. " A room hung with pictures is a room hung with thoughts." 
— Sir Joshua Reynolds. 

6. " Many can bear adversity, but few contempt." 

7. "The Saxons came into England about the middle of the 
fifth century." 

8. " There is no substitute for thorough-going, ardent, and 
sincere earnestness." — Dickens. 

9. " The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea." — Gray. 

i Point out the adjectives in the foregoing sentences, and the nouns and 



ADJECTIVES COMPARISON. 57 

pronouns to which they belong. Which of them are qualifying ? Which 
limiting ? 

Which are definite articles-? Which indefinite ? 

Which are proper adjectives ? Which numeral ? Which are pro- 
nominal adjectives used as adjectives ? Which pronominal adjectives used 
as pronouns ? Which are verbal adjectives ? 

Open your readers and point out examples of qualifying adjectives; — 
of limiting adjectives; — of indefinite articles; — definite articles; — of 
proper adjectives ; — numeral; — pronominal; — verbal. 

Write sentences containing qualifying adjectives; — limiting adjectives; 
— containing proper adjectives; — numeral; — containing pronominal ad- 
jectives used as adjectives; — used as pronouns; — containing verbal adjec- 
tives; — containing indefinite articles; — definite articles. 

COMPARISON, 

65. Large, larger, largest; high, higher, highest; lofty, loftier, 
loftiest ; bad, worse, worst. 

What changes do you find in each of the foregoing adjectives ? What 
differences of meaning are expressed by the different forms of each? 

Name other qualifying adjectives, and give the different forms by 
which they express different degrees of quality. 

The variation of adjectives to express degrees of quality is 
called comparison. 

The comparison of adjectives is the variation by which 
they express different degrees of quality. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree expresses the simple state of the 
quality : 

Wise, good, active. 

The comparative degree denotes that one object pos- 
sesses a higher or lower degree of the quality than another 
with which it is compared : 

Better, wiser, less wise, more active, less active. 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

The superlative degree denotes that one of several 

objects possesses the highest or lowest degree of the 
quality : 

Best, wisest, most active, least active. 

66. Adjectives of one syllable generally form the compara- 
tive by adding r or er to the positive; and the superlative by 
adding st or est.\ 

Wise, wiser, wisest ; great, greater, greatest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally compared 
by prefixing more and most to the positive: 

Generous, more generous, most generous. 

Diminution of quality is expressed by less and least, whether 
the adjective is of one syllable or more than one: 

Bold, less bold, least bold ; worthy, less worthy, least worthy. 

Dissyllables ending in y, ble, and ow, are often compared like 
monosyllables, by er and est: 

Happy, happier, happiest; able, abler, ablest; narrow, narrower, 
narrowest. 

67. Some adjectives are compared irregularly: 
Good, better, best ; bad, w T orse, worst. 

Some adjectives do not admit of comparison: 
Square, first, all, infinite. 

Which of the folloiving adjectives are in the positive degree ? Compare 
them. Which in the comparative? Compare them. Which in the super- 
lative? Compare them. 

Strong, smaller, poor, highest, more studious, lowest, shorter, 
sincere. 

Name five adjectives in the positive degree; — five in the comparative; — 
five in the superlative. 

Adjectives are sometimes used to perform the office of nouns; 
as, " Providence rewards the good" \ and nouns to perform the 
office of adjectives; as, an iron fence; meadow ground. 



ADJECTIVES — COMPOSITION. 59 



EXERCISE. 



• 1. "The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by- 
stealth, and to have it found out by accident.' ' — Lamb. 

2. " Our sight is the most perfect and most delightful of all 
our senses. 1 ' — Addison. 

3. "The shortest days are in December." 

4. " He only is advancing in life whose heart is getting softer, 
whose blood warmer, whose brain quicker, whose spirit is enter- 
ing into living peace." — Buskin. 

5. " That man is the happiest who has the fewest wants." 

6. " We venture to say that no poet has ever had to struggle 
with more unfavorable circumstances than Milton." — Macaalay. 

7. " From the lowest depth there is a path to the loftiest 
height." — Carlyle. 

8. " I was never less alone than when by myself." — Gibbon. 

9. " A simple, guileless, childlike man, 

Content to live where life began." — WhUtier. 

Point out the adjectives in the foregoing sentences. 
Which of those that admit of comparison are in the positive degree ? 
Compare them. 

Which in the comparative ? Compare them. 
Which in the superlative? Compare them. 

Open your readers and point out adjectives in each of the three degrees 
of comparison. Compare them. 

Write sentences containing adjectives in each of the three degrees of 
comparison. Give the degree of each. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE VII. 

STUDY OF WORDS. 

Brave, daring; hope, expectation; 

Cautious, prudent ; eager, earnest ; 

Droll, ludicrous, ridiculous; custom, habit; 

In, at; calm, serene, placid. 

Write sentences containing all of the foregoing words and illustrate 
their exact meanings and uses* 



60 ETYMOLOGY. 



REVIEW. 






Define an Adjective. Examples. What are the two general classes 
of adjectives? Define each and give examples. Into what other classes 
are adjectives divided? Define each and give example* With what 
form of letter should a proper adjective commence? When is a pro- 
nominal adjective parsed as an adjective, and when as a pronoun? 
Illustrate. Name five or more of the principal pronominal adjectives. 

What words are called articles? Which is called the indefinite 
article, and why? When is a used. Examples. When is an used? 
Examples. Which is called the definite article, and why ? 

What is the comparison of adjectives? Name the different degrees. 
Define each and give examples. How are adjectives of one syllable 
generally compared ? Examples. Adjectives of more than one syllable ? 
Examples. How is diminution of a quality expressed ? Examples. 
Give examples of adjectives compared irregularly. Compare them. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE VIII. 

CONVERSATION. 

When the class is called, let the teacher announce a subject with 
which the pupils are already familiar. 

Let this be made the subject of a special conversation, as in Compo- 
sition Exercise VI. 

The pupils should understand that as they have no previous prepara- 
tion for this exercise they must put forth extra effort to render it inter- 
esting and profitable. 

THE VERB. 

[See Preparatory Lessons, § 14.] 

68. A verb* is a word that expresses an assertion or 

affirmation : 

I am; I teach; I am taught. 

Verbs are also used to command, exhort, entreat, or permit ; 

as, "Be silent," "Strive to improve, " "Spare me," "Go in peace"; 

* The word verb is derived from the Latin verbum, which signifies a word. This 
part of speech is so called because the verb is the principal word in a sentence. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 61 

or to ask a question; as, "Is it right?" or to express an action 
or state in a general and abstract sense; as, doing; to obey. 
Two or more words often unite to form one compound verb : 
I have seen; I have been seen. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 

69- " Leaves fall "; " Money makes friends." 
" Corn grows "; " They finished their work." 
" Spring comes "; " Spring brings flowers." 

Examine the foregoing sentences and tell what differences you discover 
between the two verbs of each pair. 

Which of the verbs are followed by nouns that are governed by them ? 
Which are not ? 

Give other examples of verbs that require nouns or pronouns after them 
to complete the sense; — of verbs that do not require nouns or pronouns 
after them to complete the sense. 

These two kinds of verbs are called transitive and intransi- 
tive. 

Verbs are divided into two general classes ; transitive 
and intransitive. 

A transitive verb is one that requires the addition 

of an object to complete the sense : 

M The farmer soics his seed." The transitive verb soics requires the 
object seed to complete the sense. 

An intransitive verb is one that does not require the 
addition of an object to complete the sense : 
" He is." " The horse runs." 

Verbs are also divided, according to their form, into regular and 
irregular. See § 86. 

Form sentences containing the following verbs and tell which verbs are 
transitive. Name the subject of each verb. Name the object of each tran- 
sitive verb. 

Sails, will talk, give, forsook, bring, fled. 



62 ETYMOLOGY, 

Properties. 

70. The grammatical properties of verbs are voice, 
mode, tense, number, and person. 

VOICE. 

71. "We assist our friends"; " We are assisted by our 
friends." 

44 William conquered Harold"; 44 Harold was conquered by 
William." 

44 The tree was struck by lightning"; 44 Virtue ennobles the 
mind." 

44 The sun warms the earth"; 4 ' The room was adorned with 
paintings"; 44 The task is accomplished." 

In ivhich of the foregoing sentences does the subject of the verb act upon 
some object ? In ivhich of them is the subject acted upon ? 

Give other sentences in which the subject of the verb acts upon some 
object, and others in which the subject of the verb is acted upon. 

This distinction is called voice. 

Voice is that property of a transitive verb which shows 
whether the subject acts or is acted upon. 

Transitive verbs have two voices ; — the active and the 
passive. 

The active voice represents the subject of the verb 
as acting upon some object. 

The passive voice represents the subject of the verb 
as being acted upon. 

In the sentence " Caesar conquered Pompey," the verb conquered 
represents the subject Cmar as acting upon the object Pompey. 
The verb conquered is therefore in the active voice. But in the 
expression u Pompey was conquered by Caesar," the verb was 
conquered represents the subject Pompey as being acted upon. 
The verb teas conquered is therefore in the passive voice. 

72. A verb in the passive voice is composed of the perfect 



YERBS — COMPOSITION. 63 

participle of a transitive verb and one of the forms of the verb 
to be: 

Are seen, were seen, was seen, am seen, to be seen. Seen is the 

perfect participle of the transitive verb to see; and are, icere, 

was, etc., are modifications of the verb to be. 

Which of the following verbs are transitive ? Which intransitive ? 
Which of the transitive verbs are in the active voice? Which in the 
passive ? 

Is lost, write, is, was found, are taught, sought, will go. 

Form sentences containing transitive verbs in the active and passive 
voices. 

EXERCISE. 

1. " Here sleep the brave." 

2. " When anger rises, think of the consequences." 

3. " Every day furnishes new facts, and thus brings theory 
nearer and nearer to perfection. 1 ' — Macaulay. 

4. "Little minds are tamed and subdued by misfortune; but 
great minds rise above it." — Washington Irving. 

5. " The foundation of knowledge must be laid by reading." 
— Johnson. 

. 6. " Prolong'd endurance tames the bold." — Byron. 

Point out the verbs in the foregoing sentences. Which of them are 
tra n s it he ? W h ic h intra n s it ive ? 

Which of the transitive verbs are in the active voice ? Which in the 
passive? 

Name the subject of each verb. Name the object of each transitive verb. 

Open your readers and point out examples of transitive verbs in the 
active voice; — in the jussive voice; — examples of intransitive verbs. 

Write sentences containing three or more transitive verbs in the active 
voice, and sentences containing the same verbs used in the passive voice. 

Write sentences containing three or more intransitive verbs. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE IX. 

STUDY OF WORDS. 

Let the teacher assign a page in a reader to be studied as in Exer- 
cise I. 

Let each pupil be called on to give the meaning of an important or 



64: ETYMOLOGY. 



difficult word, and embody it in a sentence of his own. Let each verb 
be pointed out and designated as transitive or intransitive. If transitive, 
let the voice be given. 

MODE. 

73. To see; he sees; does he see? if he sees; see thou; seen. 
To hear; I hear; do I hear? if I hear; hear thou; hearing. 

Examine the verbs in the foregoing examples and tell what differences 
you observe in their manner of expressing an action or state ? 

Which of them simply indicate or declare, or ask a question? 

Which express condition or uncertainty ? 

Which command or entreat ? 

Which express an action or state in a general manner ? 

Give other examples of verbs that are used to indicate or declare, or ash 
a question; — of verbs that are used to command; — of verbs that imply 
condition or uncertainty ; — of verbs that express an action or state in a 
general manner. 

This distinction is called mode. 

Mode is the manner in which an action or state is 
expressed. 

Verbs have five modes; the infinitive, the indica- 
tive, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the par- 
ticipial. 

74. The infinitive mode is used to express an action 
or state in a general and unlimited manner : 

To go ; to hear ; to see. 

The infinitive is generally distinguished by the prefix to. 
When this prefix is employed, it is regarded as a part of the 
verb. 

The infinitive is properly a verbal noun. 

The present tense of the infinitive is the root of the verb, 
from which the other parts are formed. 

75. The indicative mode indicates or declares, or 
asks a question : 

" He learns " ; " He can learn " ; "Does he learn t " 









VERBS MODE. 65 

The common form of the indicative mode merely expresses a 
declaration or an interrogation: 

" He improves " ; " Will you go ? " 

76. The potential form of the indicative expresses a declara- 
tion, or asks a question; and also implies possibility, liberty, 
power, will, obligation, necessity, etc.: 

He can icalk." " We must return" " What would they have?" 

Note. — In speaking of the common form of the indicative, it will gen- 
erally he found convenient to employ m3rely the term indicative mode; 
and in speaking of the potential form, to designate it as the potential 
indicative. 

77. The subjunctive mode implies condition, sup- 
position, or uncertainty : 

" If he had the opportunity, he would improve rapidly." u Though 
they suffer, they do not complain." 

The subjunctive mode, like the indicative, has a potential 
form : 

" He might improve, if he would make the necessary effort." 

78. The imperative mode commands, exhorts, en- 
treats, or permits : 

"Leave me alone." "Turn not away." "Forgive my offense." " Go 
in peace." 

Form sentences containing verbs in the infinitive mode; — in the com- 
mon form of the indicative; — in the potential indicative; — in the sub- 
junctive; — in the imperative. 

Participles. 

79. The participle is a mode of the verb which par- 
takes of the properties of the verb and the adjective : 

Doing, done, having done, having been done. In the sentence 
" He is in school reciting his lesson," the participle reciting 
is a transitive verb and governs the word lesson. It also relates 
like an adjective, to the pronoun he. 

80. There are two classes of participles ; perfect and 
imperfect. 



66 ETYMOLOGY. 

A perfect participle denotes the completion of an 
action or state : 

Called, seen ; having called ; having seen. 

An imperfect participle denotes the continuance of 
an action or state : 

Calling, seeing, being called, being seen. 

Imperfect participles relate to present, past, or future time, according 
as they are connected with verbs in the present, past, or future tense: 

"He stands leaning upon his staff"; "He stood leaning upon his 
staff"; " He will stand leaning upon his staff." 

Form sentences containing perfect participles ; — imperfect participles. 

All parts of the verb are called finite except the infinitive and the 
participle. 

EXERCISE. 

1. " She passed on her way, singing the songs of former 
years.' 1 

2. " If we would seem true, we must be true." 

3. " Nothing can supply the place of books." — Channing. 

4. " If it were not for hope the heart would break." 

5. " What we truly and earnestly aspire to be, that in some 
sense we are." — Mrs. Jameson. 

6. " Do noble things, not dream them all day long." 

7. " Do you know the Old Man of the sea, of the sea? "— 0. W. 
Holmes. 

8. " Here, by the bonds of nature feebly held, 

Minds combat minds, repelling and repelled." — Goldsmith. 

9. " What exile from himself can flee?" — Byron. 

10. " Be wise to-day, 'tis madness to defer." — Young. 

Give the mode of each verb in the foregoing sentences. Which of them 
are in the potential indicative ? Which in the potential subjunctive ? 

Which are participles ? To which class does each participle belong? 

Open your readers and point out verbs in all the different modes, includ- 
ing the potential indicative and the perfect and imperfect participles. 

Write sentences containing verbs in all the different modes, including 
the potential indicative, the potential subjunctive, and the perfect and im- 
perfect participles. 



VERBS — TENSE. 67 

COMPOSITION EXERCISE IX. 

STUDY OF WORDS. 

Invent, discover; guide, direct; endure, suffer; fortunate, 
lucky; teach, learn; unless, except; sit, set, repeat, recite, 
rehearse; oppose, resist, withstand. 

Write sentences containing all of the foregoing words and illustrating 
their exact meanings. 



TENSE. 



81. I see ; I saw; I shall see ; " I have seen him to-day " ; "I had 
seen him before he left " ; "I shall have seen him before you return." 

What differences do you discover in the time expressed by the differ- 
ent verbs in the foregoing examples? Which denotes indefinite past 
time? Which indefinite future time? Which present time? Which 
past time that precedes some other past time? Which past time that is 
connected with the present? Which future time that precedes some 
other future time ? 

This distinction of time is called tense. 

Tense is the distinction of verbs in regard to time. 

Verbs have six tenses ; the present, the past, the 
future, the present perfect, the past perfect, and the 
future perfect. 

1. The present tense denotes present time : 

I write; I am writing. 

2. The past tense denotes indefinite past time : 

1 wrote; I was writing. 

3. The future tense denotes indefinite future time : 

I shall write; I shall be writing. 

4. The present perfect tense represents an action or 
event as completed in past time that is connected with 
the present : 

I have written; I have been writing; It has been written. 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 

5. The past perfect tense represents an action or 
event as completed in past time that precedes some other 
past time : 

" When he had delivered the message, he took his departure." 

6. The future perfect tense represents an action or 
event as completed in future time that precedes some 
other future time : 

" He will have finished his work at five o'clock." 

Note. — The present perfect tense is formed by the use of the auxiliary 
have; the past perfect tense by the use of the auxiliary had; and the 
future perfect tense by the use of the auxiliaries shall have or will have. 
Perfect, I have seen; past perfect, I had seen; future perfect, I shall have 
seen, 

82. The infinitive mode has only two tenses, the present and the 
perfect ; and the imperative is used only in the present tense. 

83. The tense of a verb in the potential indicative or 
potential subjunctive is governed by the sense of the passage, 
and not by the form of the verb: 

" He said I might go" ; " I could go now if I would" ; " I would go 
to-morrow if I could be sure of meeting you." 

Note. — The forms of the different tenses are best learned by studying 
them in the conjugations of verbs which are given in the following 

pages. 



REVIEW. 

Define a Verb and give examples. Other uses of the verb. Exam- 
ples. Into what general classes are verbs divided ? What is a transitive 
verb ? Examples. An intransitive verb ? Examples. 

What are the modifications of verbs? What voices have transitive 
verbs? Define the Active Voice;— -the Passive Voice. Illustrate. Of 
what is a verb in the passive voice composed? Examples. 

What is Mode ? What modes have verbs ? Define the Infinitive Mode. 
Examples. How is it usually distinguished? Define the Indicative Mode. 
Examples. What is the common form of the indicative? Examples. 



VERBS — NUMBER AND PERSON. 69 

The potential form ? Examples. Define the Subjunctive Mode. Exam- 
ples. What form has the subjunctive in addition to the common form? 
Examples. Define the Imperative Mode. Examples. 

Define the Participle. Examples. Into what general classes are par- 
ticiples divided ? Define a Perfect Participle. Examples. An Imperfect 
Participle. Examples. 

Define Tense. What tenses have verbs? Define each of the tenses 
and give examples. How are the present perfect, past perfect, and future 
perfect tenses formed? How is the tense of a verb in the potential 
indicative or potential subjunctive governed? 



NUMBER AND PERSON. 

84. I am, you are, he is ; we are, you are, they are ; I write, you 
W T rite, he writes, they write. 

Give tJie person and number of the subject of am ; — of the subjects of 
are ; — of the subject of is ; — of the subjects of write ;— of the subject of 
writes. 

These examples show that verbs are varied to express number 
and person. 

Yerbs, like nouns and pronouns, have two numbers 
and three persons. 

The person and number of a verb are always the 
same as the person and number of its subject. 

Thus, in the expression " He hears," the verb hears is said to be in 
the third person singular, agreeing with its subject He. 

Note. — The various modifications of verbs which indicate person and 
number are fully shown in the Conjugations of Verbs. 

Infinitives and participles have neither number nor person. 

Form sentences containing verbs in the first person singular ; — in the 
third person singular; — in the first person plural ; — in the second person 
plural; — in the third person plural. 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 



EXERCISE. 

1. " Fortune has rarely condescended to be the companion of 
genius." — Disraeli. 

2. "Devote each day to the object then in time, and every 
evening will find something done. 1 ' 

3. " The number of species of fish is estimated at about 
twelve thousand." 

4. u If you would compare two men, you must know them 
both." 

5. " Beethoven was afflicted with incurable deafness long be- 
fore he had composed his greatest works." 

6. "He will have left Europe before the letter can reach 
him." 

7. "Shakspeare was naturally learned; he needed not the 
spectacles of books to read nature; he looked inward and found 
her there." — Dry den. 

8. "When the whole world had scarce been sufficient for 
Pompey's victories, he could not find a spot upon it at last for a 
grave." 

9. " No man has tasted differing fortunes more, 

And thirteen times I have been rich and poor." — DeFoe. 

Give the tense and the person and number of each verb in the foregoing 
sentences, noting those having a potential signification. 

Open your readers and point out verbs in each of the tenses, and give 
also the person and number of each. 

Write sentences containing verbs in all of the tenses and in each of the 
numbers and persons. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE X. 

STUDY OF WORDS — SYNONYMS. 

1. "The voice of the benevolent man is cheering to an aching 
heart." 

2. " Pitch a lucky man into the Nile, says the Arabian prov- 
erb, and he will come up with a fish in his mouth." — Willis. 

3. " Troubles spring from idleness, and grievous toils from need- 
less ease'' — Franklin. 

4. " Tis against the rule of nature." — Shakspeare. 

5. " How different the emotions between departure and re- 
turn." — Irving. 



VEEBS — REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 71 

Copy the foregoing sentences and substitute words or phrases of similar 
meaning for the words and phrases in Italics. 

[Let one or more similar exercises be added.] 

Principal Parts* 

85. The three principal parts of a verb are the 
present tense, the past tense, and the perfect par- 
ticiple : 

Am, was, been ; do, did, done ; write, wrote, written. 

These are called the principal parts because all the other 
parts are formed from them by unvarying rules. 

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 

86. Verbs are divided, according to their form, into 
regular and irregular. 

A regular verb is one that forms its past tense and 
perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present: 

Present, love; past, loved; perf. part., loved; call, called, called. 

An irregular verb is one that does not form its past 
tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the pres- 
ent : 

Present, see; past, saw; perf. part., seen; go, went, gone. 

87. Regular verbs are also called weak verbs, and irregular 
verbs are called strong verbs. 

Which of the following verbs are regular ? Which irregular ? 

Write, ran, move, break, conquer, fell. 

Name five or more regular verbs; — five or more irregular. 

88. The following list shows the principal parts of the 
simple irregular verbs that are in general use. When 
more forms than one are given for the past tense or per- 
fect participle, that which stands first is to be preferred. 



> 



72 



Ef^TMOLOGY. 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 




Past. 


Perf. Part. 


Abide 




abode 


abode 


Am or be 




was 


been 


Awake 




awoke, awaked 


awaked 


j Bear (to b 
I Bear (to s 


ring forth' 


bore 


born 


ustain) 


bore 


borne 


Beat 




beat 


beaten, beat 


Begin 




began 


begun 


Bead, un- 




bent, bended 


bent 


Bereave 




bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


Beseech 




besought 


besought 


Bet 




bet, betted 


bet, betted 


Bid 




bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Bind, ww-, 


re- 


bound 


bound 


Bite 




bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 




bled 


bled 


Blow- 




blew 


blown 


Break 




broke 


broken 


Breed 




bred 


bred 


Bring 




brought 


brought 


Build, re- t 


up- 


built, builded 


built, builded 


Burn 




burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 


Burst 




burst 


burst 


Buy 




bought 


bought 


Cast 




cast 


cast 


Catch 




caught 


caught 


Chide 




chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 




chose 


chosen 


( Cleave (to 
( Cleave (to 


adhere) 


cleaved 


cleaved 


split) 


cleft 


cleft, cleaved 


Cling 




clung 


clung 


Clothe 




clothed, clad 


clothed, clad 


Come, be-, 


over- 


came 


come 


Cost 




cost 


cost 


Creep 




crept 


crept 


Crow 




crew, crowed 


crowed 


Cut 




cut 


cut 


Dare (to venture) 


durst, dared 


dared 


Deal 




dealt, dealed 


dealt, dealed 






IRREGULAR VERBS. 



73 



Present 


Post 


Perf Part. 


Dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


Do, un-, mis-, over- 


did 


done 


Draw, with- 


drew 


drawn 


Dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


Drink 


drank 


drunk, drank 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


Eat 


ate, eat 


eaten, ate 


Pall, be- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fo.ught 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forbid 


forbade 


forbidden. 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Freight 


freighted 


fraught, freighted 


Get, he-, for - 


got 


got, gotten 


Gild 


gilded, gilt 


gilded, gilt 


Gird, be-, un-, en- 


girded, girt 


girded, girt 


Give, for-, mis- 


gave 


given 


Go, fore-, under- 


went 


gone 


Grave, en-, 


graved 


graven, graved 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang* 


hung 


hung 


Have 


had 


had' 


Hear, over- 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


heaved, hove 


heaved, hoven 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, hewed 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold, be-, with-, up- 


held 


held, holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 



* Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular. 



74 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present 


Past. 




Perfect. 


Keep 


kept 




kept 


Kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


Knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


Know, fore- 


knew 




known 


Lade (to load) 


laded 




laden 


Lay (to place), in- 


laid 




laid 


Lead, mis- 


led 




led 


Leave 


left 




left 


Lend 


lent 




lent 


Let 


let 




let 


Lie (to recline) 


lay 




lain 


Light 


lighted, 


lit 


lighted, lit 


•Load, mi-, over, 


loaded 




loaded, laden 


Lose 


lost 




lost 


Make 


made 




made 


Mean 


meant 




meant 


Meet 


met 




met 


Mow 


mowed 




mown, mowed 


Pay, re- 


paid 




paid 


Pen (to inclose) 


penned, pent 


penned, pent 


Put 


put 




put 


Quit 


quit, qu 


itted 


quit, quitted 


Read 


read 




read 


Rend 


rent 




rent 


Rid 


rid 




rid 


Ride 


rode 




rode, ridden 


Ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


Rise, a- 


rose 




risen 


Riva 


rived 




riven, rived 


Run, ouU 


ran 




run 


Saw 


sawed 




sawn, sawed 


Say, un-, gain- 


said 




said 


See, fore- 


saw 




seen 


Seek 


sought 




sought 


Seethe 


seethed 




seethed, sodden 


Sell 


sold 




sold 


Send 


sent 




sent 


Set, be- 


set 




set 


Sit (to rest) 


sat 




sat 


Shake 


shook 




shaken 



IRREGULAK VERBS. 



75 



Present 




Past. 




Perf. Part 


Shape, 


mis- 


shaped 




shaped, shapen 


Shave 




shaved 




shaved, shaven 


Shear 




sheared 




shorn, sheared 


Shed 




shed 




shed 


Shine 




shone, shined 


shone, shined 


Shoe 




shod 




shod 


Shoot, ( 


wer* 


shot 




shot 


Show 




showed 




shown 


Shred 




shred 




shred 


Shrink 




shrunk, 


shrank 


shrunk 


Shut 




shut 




shut 


Sing 




sang, sung 


sung 


Sink 




sunk, sank 


sunk 


Slay 




slew 




slain 


Sleep 




slept 




slept 


Slide 




slid 




slidden, slid 


Sling 




slung 




slung 


Slink 




slunk 




slunk 


Slit 




slit 




slit, slitted 


Smite 




smote 




smitten 


Sow (tc 


) scatter) 


sowed 




sown, sowed 


Speak, 


be- 


spoke 




spoken 


Speed 




sped 




sped 


Spell, mis- 


spelled, 


spelt 


spelled, spelt 


Spend, 


mis- 


spent 




spent 


Spill 




spilt, spilled 


spilt, spilled 


Spin 




spun 




spun 


Spit* 




spit 




spit 


Split 




split 




split 


Spread 


, over-, be- 


spread 




spread 


Spring 




sprang, 


sprung 


sprung 


Stand, 


with-, under- 


stood 




stood 


Steal 




stole 




stolen 


Stick 




stuck 




stuck 


Sting 




stung 




stung 


Stride, 


be- 


strode, i 


strid 


stridden, strid 


Strike 




struck 




struck, stricken 


String 




strung 




strung 



* Spit) to put on a spit, is regular. 



76 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Present, 
Strive 

Strow or strew, be- 

Swear, for- 
Sweat 
Sweep 
Swell 
Swim 

Swing [re-, over- 
Take, mis-, under-, be-, 
Teach, un-, mis- 
Tear 

Tell,/*r* 
Think, be- 
Thrive 
Throw, over- 
Thrust 
Tread, re- 
Wax 
Wear 

Weave, un- 
Weep 
Wet 
Whet 
Win 

Wind, un- 
Work 
Wring 
Write 



Past, 
strove 

strowed or strewed 

swore 

sweat, sweated 

swept 

swelled 

swam 

swung 

took 

taught 

tore 

told 

thought 

throve, thrived 

threw 

thrust 

trod 

w T axed 

wore 

wove 

wept 

wet, wetted 

whetted, whet 

won 

wound 

worked, wrought 

wrung 

wrote 



Per/. PaH. 

striven 
i strown, strowed 
• strewn, strewed 

sworn 

sweat, sweated 

swept 

swollen, swelled 

swum 

swung 

taken 

taught 

torn 

told 

thought 

thriven, thrived 

thrown 

thrust 

trodden, trod 

waxed, waxen 

worn 

woven 

wept 

wet, wetted 

whetted, whet 

won 

wound 

worked, wrought 

wrung 

written 



EXERCISE. 

Give the principal parts of the following verbs: 

Begin, blow, buy, cling, cost, dream, flee, have, let, sing, spin, 
strive, win, write, set, sit, lie, lay, do, go. 

Name five verbs that have the three principal parts alike;— five that 
have the past tense and perfect participle alike; — five that have a distinct 
form for each of the principal pai'ts. 

Open your readers and point out examples of regular and irregular 
verbs, and give the principal parts of each. 



COMPOSITION — CONJUGATION. 77 

Form sentences containing irregular verbs in the present tense; — in the 
past tense; — in the form of the perfect participle. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XI. 

Let the teacher select an interesting passage of ten or fifteen lines 
from any book, paper, or magazine, and read it to the class. Let the 
class be called on to give special attention while it is read slowly a 
second time. 

Let the pupils now write the substance of the same passage, using 
the language of the author as far as they can remember it. 

Let the work of the pupils be read and compared with the original. 
Notice particularly the differences that are found in the choice of words, 
and urge upon pupils the importance of employing at all times the best 
words they can command. Any errors that occur should be corrected. 



CONJUGATION. 



89. The conjugation of a verb is the regular com- 
bination and arrangement of its several voices, modes, 
tenses, numbers, and persons. 

SYNOPSIS. 

90. The synopsis of a verb is a condensed summary 
of its several modes and tenses. 

AUXILIARIES. 

91. An auxiliary verb is one that is used to aid in 
the conjugation of other verbs. 

I do see ; I did see ; he does see ; I shall see ; he will see ; I have seen ; 
he had seen; I must see; I might see; he could see; I can see; I 
could see ; I may see ; I am seen ; he is seen ; he has been seen ; they 
will be seen. These are all formed from the verb to see by the aid 
of auxiliaries. 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 

The auxiliaries are do, b3, have, shall, will, may, can, with 
their variations, and must, which has no variation. 

Do, be, have, and will are also used as principal verbs. Thus, in 
the sentence " I have heard the news," have is used as an auxiliary to the 
principal verb heard ; but in the sentence " I have no time to devote to 
trifles," have is employed as a principal verb. 

The Auxiliaries SHALL and WILL. 

92. No error is more common than the misuse of 
shall and will, and the following conjugation should be 
carefully studied and applied. 

SHALL and WILL. 



Affirmative. 






SIMPLE INDICATIVE. 




Singular. 






Plural. 


1st person, I shall 




1 


We shall 


n , ( You will 
2d person, -J 

r I Thou wilt 




2 


j You will 
* Ye will 


3d person, He will 




3 


They will 


POTENTIAL 


INDICATIVE. 




Singular. 






Plural. 


1 I will 




1 


We will 


o ( You shall 
( Thou shalt 




2 


( You shall 




I Ye shall 


3 He shall 




3 


They shall 



Interrogative. 

SIMPLE INDICATIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 Shall I? 1 Shall we? 

2 ( Shall you? g j Shall you? 
( Shalt thou? " ( Shall ye? 

3 Will he? 3 Will they? 

POTENTIAL INDICATIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 Shall I? 1 Shall we? 

o j Will you ? of Will you ? 

4 I Wilt thou? '" \ Will ye? 

3 Shall or will he ? 8 Shall or will they ? 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 79 



Subjunctive. 

SIMPLE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 If I shall 1 If we shall 

2 (If you shall o f If 3 T ° U shall 
' } If thou shall ' 1 If ye shall 

3 If he shall 3 If they shall 

POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 If I will 1 If we will 

o (If you will g i ** y° u w ^ 

' ( If thou wilt ' ( If ye will 

3 If he will 3 If they will 

93. .Should and would correspond to shall and will, and the 

conjugation of shall and will serves also as a guide to the con- 
jugation of should and would. 



EXERCISE. 

1. " I hope they will accept this proposition." 

2. " Yes, my son, I will point out the way, and my soul shall 
guide yours in the ascent; for we will take our flight together." 
— Goldsmith. 

3. " If every one would mend one, all would be amended." 

4. " What shall we say of the instability of human great- 
ness?" 

5. " He who seeks repentance for the past should woo the 
angel Virtue for the future." — Bulwer. 

6. " If I should neglect to use my right hand, it would forget 
its cunning." 

7. " We should respect old age." 

8. "Instead of saying that man is the creature of circum- 
stance, it would be nearer the mark to say that man is the 
architect of circumstance." — Carlyle. 

9. " If the mountain will not go to Mohammed, let Moham- 
med go to the mountain." 

10. "I sometimes have asked, shall we ever be men?"-^0. W. 
Holmes. 



80 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Which of the verbs in the foregoing sentences are simple indicatives or 
subjunctives, and which have a potential signification ? Which are inter- 
rogative ? 

Write sentences containing examples of the correct use of shall and 
will and of should and would. See foregoing conjugation. 

[Similar exercises should be continued till pupils become familiar with the correct 
use of shall and will and of should and would.] 



94. Conjugation of the verb TO BE. 

Principal Parts. 

Present, Am. Past, Was. Perf. Participle, Been. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be Present perfect, To have been 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT 


TENSE. 






Singidar. 






Plural. 


1st person, I am 




1 


We are 


n -, S You are 
2d person, \ _ 

F I Thou art 






( You are 
( Ye are 




2 


3d person, He is 




3 


They are 


PAST TENSE. 






Singular. 






Plural. 


1 I was 




1 


We were 


o ( You were 
( Thou wast 




2 


( You were 
( Ye were 




3 He was 




3 


They were 


FUTURE 


TENSE. 






Singidar. 






Plural. 


1 I shall be 




1 


We shall be 


o ( You will be 
( Thou wilt be 




2 


j You will be 
( Ye will be 




3 He will be 


• 


3 


They will be 


PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 


Singular. 






Plural. 


1 I have been 




1 


We have been 


2 j You have been 
i Thou hast been 




2 


j You have been 
( Ye have been 




3 He has been 




3 


They have been 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



81 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. 

I had been 1 

ou bad been o 

Thou hadst been 
He had been 3 






Singular. 
I shall have been 
You will have been 
Thou wilt have been 
He will have been 



Plural 
We had been 
You had been 
Ye had been 
They had been 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 



Plural. 

We shall have been 
j You will have been 
I Ye will have been 

They will have been 



Note. — For Potential Indicative see synopsis, § 97. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 





Singular. 






Plural. 


1 


If I am 




1 


If we are 


2 


j If you are 
(If thou art 




2 


(If you are 
( If ye are 








3 


If he is 




3 


If they are 




PRESENT TENSE.- 


—ANCIENT 


STYLE. 




Singular. 






Plural. 


1 


If Lbe 




1 


If we be 


2 


j If you be 
( If thou be 




2 


j If you be 
( If ye be 








3 


If he be . 

PAST 

Singular. 


rENSE. 


3 


If they be 
Plural. 


1 


If I was 




1 


If we were 


2 


\ If you w r ere 
i If thou wast 




2 


j If you were 
( If ye were 






3 


If he w^as 




3 


If they w T ere 




FUTURE 


: TENSE. 






Singular. 






Plural. 


1 


If i' shall be 




1 


If we shall be 


i 

2 


( If yoir shall be 




2 


j If you shall be 
( If ye shall be 




\ If thou shalt be 




3 


If he shall be 




3 


If they shall be 



82 ETYMOLOGY. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 If I have been 1 If we have been 

2 ( If you have been 2 \^ ^ ou nave been 
( If thou hast been * i If ye have been 

3 If he has been 3 If they have been 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 If I had been 1 If we had been 

2 j If you had been 2 i^ y° 11 had °een 
(If thou hadst been (If ye had been 

3 If he had been 3 If they had been 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural 

1 If I shall have been 1 If we shall have been 

2 \ If you shall have been 2 $ If y° u shall have been 
I If thou shall have been ^ ( If ye shall have been 

3 If he shall have been 3 If they shall have been 

HYPOTHETICAL FORM. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 If I were < 1 If we were 

2 j If you were g ( If you w r ere 
I If thou w r ert ' ( If ye were 

3 If he were 3 If they were 

95. This form of the verb to be is commonly used, in the 
subjunctive mode, to express a supposition or hypothesis. When 
employed in a negative sentence, it implies an affirmation; as, 
" If it were not late, I would go farther." When used in an 
affirmative sentence, it implies a negation: as, "If it were pos- 
sible, they would break down all law." The time denoted by 
this use of the verb is sometimes present and sometimes in- 
definite. 

The past subjunctive of other verbs is often employed in a 
similar manner; as, " I would walk out, if it did not rain.''' " If 
I had the power, I would assist you cheerfully." 

96. The potential form of the subjunctive mode is the 
same in most of the tenses as the potential form of the indie- 






CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



83 



|iive. The orly difference between them is in the use of the 
auxiliaries shall and will. See the conjugation of shall and 
nil, § 92. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



c • 7 -o (Be you 
Singular, Be, or ] n J 

( Be thou 



PW,Be,*r| Be y° u 
( Be ye 



PARTICIPLES. 



Imperfect, Being 



Perfect,^ 11 

( Having been 



97. Synopsis of the verb TO BE. 



Present, To be 

Present, I am 
Past, I was 
Future, I shall be 



INFINITIVE. 

Present perfect, To have been 

INDICATIVE. 

Present perfect, I have been 
Past perfect, I had been 
Future perfect, I shall have been 



POTENTIAL INDICATIVE. 

°resent, or Future, I may, can, or must be 

present, Past, or Future, I might, could, would, or should be 

resent perfect, or Future perf. I may, can, or must have been 
present perfect, or Past per/. I might, could, would, or should have been 

See §§ 83, 104. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present tense, common style, If I am 



Present tense, ancient style, 

Past tense, 

Future tense, 

Present perfect, 

Past perfect, 

Future j)erfect, 

Hypothetical form, 



If I be 

If I was 

If I shall be 

If I have been 

If I had been 

If I shall have been 

If I were 



IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Be, or Be you or thou 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being Perfect, Been 



84 



ETYMOLOGY. 



Give the mode, tense, number, and person of each of the verbs in the 
following examples. Which are in the potential indicative form ? Poten- 
tial subjunctive ? Which are participles ? 

"He is"; "Having been"; " They had been"; "We are"; 
" Be thou " ; " Shall I be " ; " They may be " ; " If I should be " ; 
"Been"; " If he has been"; "Being." 

Give the synopsis of the verb to be. 

98. Conjugation of the verb TO SEE, in the 
active voice. 

Principal Parts* 

Present , See. Past, Saw. Perf. participle, Seen. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To see Present perfect, To have seen 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 

I see 
j You see 
( Thou seest 

He sees 

Singular. 

I saw 
j You saw 
( Thou sawest 

He saw 



PAST TENSE. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 
I shall see 

ou will see 
Thou wilt see 
He will see 



i? 



Plural. 

1 We see 
( You see 
( Ye see 

3 They see 



Plural. 

1 We saw 
( You saw 
( Ye saw 

3 They saw 



Plural. 

1 We shall see 
j You will see 
( Ye will see 

3 They will see 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



85 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



1 


I have seen 


1 


We have seen 


2 


j You have seen 
( Thou hast seen 


2 


( You have seen 
( Ye have seen 


3 


He has seen 


3 


They have seen 




PAST PERFECT 


TENSE. 






Singular. 




Plural. 


1 


I had seen 


1 


We had seen 


o 


j You had seen 
( Thou hadst seen 


2 


( You had seen 
(Ye had seen 


J 


3 


He had seen 


3 


They had seen 




FUTURE PERFECT 


1 TENSE. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1 


I shall have seen 


1 


We shall have seen 


o 


( You will have seen 


2 


j You will have seen 
( Ye will have seen 


6 


} Thou wilt have seen 


3 


He will have seen 


3 


They will have seen 



The subjunctive of all the verbs except be generally takes the 
same form as the indicative. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular, See, or j See >' ou Plural, See, or \ f ee ? 0]X 

( See thou ( See ye 



PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Seeing Perfect, Having seen 



99. Synopsis of the verb TO SEE, in the active voice. 
Present, To see, 



Present, I see 
Past, I saw 
Future, I shall see 



INFINITIVE. 

Present 'perfect, To have seen 



INDICATIVE. 

Present perfect, I have seen 
Past perfect, I had seen 
Future perfect, I shall have seen 



86 ETYMOLOGY. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, See, or See thou or you 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Seeing Perfect, Having seen 

Give the form of the verb to see, in the third person singular, present 
indicative; — in the present perfect infinitive; — in the first person plural, 
present perfect indicative; — in the first person singular, future perfect 
subjunctive. 

Give the synopsis of the verb to see, in the active voice. 

100. Passive voice of the verb TO SEE, 

[See § 72.] 
Synopsis. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, To be seen Present perfect, To have been seen 

INDICATIVE. 

Present, I am seen Present perfect, I have been seen 

Past, I was seen Past perfect, I had been seen 

Future, I shall be seen Future perfect, I shall have been seen 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Be seen, or Be you or thou seen 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being seen Perfect, Seen, having been seen 

Give the synopsis of the verb to see, in the passive voice. 

101. Synopsis of the verb TO LOVE, in the active voice. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, To love Present perfect, To have loved 

INDICATIVE. 

Present, I love Present perfect, I have loved 

Past, I loved Past perfect, I had loved 

Future, I shall love Future perfect, I shall have loved 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 87 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Love, or Love thou or you 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Loving Perfect, Having loved 

102. Synopsis of the verb TO LOVE, in the passive voice. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, To be loved Present perfect, To have been loved 

INDICATIVE. 

Present, I am loved Present perfect, 1 have been loved 

Past, I was loved Past perfect, I had been loved 

Future, I shall be loved Future perfect, I shall have been loved 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Be loved, or Be you or thou loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being loved Perfect, Loved, having been loved 

Give the synopsis of the verb to love, in the active voice; — in the 
passive voice. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

103. The progressive form of a verb is that which is em- 
ployed to denote the continuance of an action or state. It is 
formed by prefixing one of the forms of the verb to be to the 
imperfect participle: 

M I am writing a letter." " He is studying arithmetic." 
Synopsis of the verb TO WRITE, in the progressive form. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present, To be writing Present perfect, To have been writing 

INDICATIVE. 

Present, I am writing Present perfect, I have been writing 

Past, I was writing Past perfect, I had been writing 

Future, I shall be writing Future perfect, I shall have been writing 



88 ETYMOLOGY. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present, Be writing, or Be thou or you writing 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Writing Perfect, Having been writing 

Glee the synopsis of the verb to write, in the progressive form. 

POTENTIAL FORM. 
104. Synopsis of the verb TO HEAR, in the potential form. 

INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE MODES. 

Present or Future, I may, can, or must hear 

Present, Past, or Future, I might, could, would, or should hear 

Present perfect or Future perf., I may, can, or must have heard 
Present perfect or Past perf, I might, could, would, or should have heard 
Give the synopsis of the verb to hear, in the potential form. 

EXERCISE. 

1. " Charles, T thank thee for thy love to me, which thou shalt 
find I will most kindly requite." — Shakspeare. 

2. u The great Tasso was reduced to such a dilemma that he 
was obliged to borrow a crown from a friend to subsist through 
the week." — Disraeli. 

3. " If your joys cannot be long, so neither can your sorrows.'" 

4. " The peacock, renowned for its gorgeous plumage, belongs 
to southern Asia. 1 ' 

5. " Moore thought it quick work if he wrote seventy lines of 
Lalla Rookh in a w r eek." 

6. " We sat and talked until the night, 

Descending, filled the little room." — Longfellow. 

7. " Be noble! and the nobleness that lies 

In other men, sleeping, but never dead, 

Will rise in majesty to meet thine own." — J. Russell Lowell. 

Which of the verbs in the foregoing sentences are intransitive? 

Which of the transitive verbs are in the active voice ? Which in the 
passive ? 

Which of the verbs are regular ? Which irregular ? Give their prin- 
cipal parts. 



VERBS —COMPOSITION. 89 

Give the number and person and the tense of each of the verbs. 

Give the mode of each verb, stating which have a potential signification, 
and which are participles. 

Name a verb in the third person plural of the present perfect subjunc- 
tive; — one in the present imperative; — in the present perfect infinitive; — 
in the first person singular of the future perfect indicative. 

Name three perfect participles; — three imperfect. 

Name a verb in the third person singular of the present indicative and 
passive voice. 

Give the synopsis of the verb to write, in the active voice; — in the pas- 
sive voice. 

Give the synopsis of to go, in the progressive form; — in the potential 
form. 

Turn to one of your reading lessons and point out all the verbs in the 
first twenty lines, and give the mode, tense, number, and person of each. 

State which are intransitive. Which of those that are transitive are 
in the active voice ? Which in the passive voice ? 

Which are regular ? Which irregular ? Give the principal parts of 
each. 

Which have a potential signification ? Which are participles ? 

Write sentences containing verbs in the common form of the indicative 
and subjunctive modes; — in the potential indicative and potential subjunc- 
tive; — in the imperative and infinitive modes; — containing perfect and 
imperfect participles; — containing verbs in the different tenses, persons, 
and numbers; — containing verbs in the passive voice; — containing verbs 
in the progressive form. 

[This is an exercise of more than ordinary importance, and it should be continued 
in various forms for several days.] 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XII. 

SILVER. 

W*ite ten or more lines on silver, — where found; how obtained; 
qualities; uses; value; compare with other metals, etc. 

Correct and revise. 

Give the synopsis of the verbs in your composition. 



90 ETYMOLOGY. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

105. A defective verb is one that cannot be used in 
all the modes and tenses. Thus, we cannot say, I had 
could, I shall can, etc. 

The defective verbs are may, can, shall, will, must, ought, 
quoth, wit, beware. 

UNIPERSONAL VERBS. 

106. A unipersonal verb is one that is used only in 
the third person singular : 

It hails; it snows; it behoves. 

Select examples of defective verbs from any of your school books; — 
examples of unipersonal verbs. 

Form sentences containing examples of defective vet^bs and unipersonal 
verbs. 

REVIEW. 

How many persons and numbers have verbs? With what do they 
agree? What of infinitives and participles? 

What are the principal parts of the verb? Why so called ? 

Into what classes are verbs divided according to their form? Define 
a regular verb. Examples. Define an irregular verb. Examples. Give 
the past tense and perfect participle of am, begin, blow, cost+ fly, grow, 
keep, let, lose, send, shut, smite, swim, etc. 

What is the conjugation of a verb? The synopsis of a verb? What 
is an auxiliary verb? Examples. 

Give examples of shall and icill, correctly used in the simple indica- 
tive; in the potential indicative; in the simple subjunctive; the poten- 
tial subjunctive; in the interrogative forms of the simple and potential 
forms of the indicative. 

Give examples of should and would correctly used in the same forms. 
W T hat is the progressive form of the verb? Give the synopsis of to 
write, in the progressive form. Give the synopsis of to hear, in*the poten- 
tial form. 

What is a defective verb ? Examples. What is a unipersonal verb? 
Examples. 



COMPOSITION — ADVERBS, 91 

COMPOSITION EXERCISE XIII. 

CONVERSATION. 

Let all the members of the class note down expressions, good and 
bad, which they hear during the day, at recitations, at recess, before and 
after school, on the street, in places of trade, etc. 

These examples, with such as may have been specially noticed by the ' 
teacher, will form the basis of an exceedingly profitable lesson, and a 
kind and judicious use of them may be made to exert an important 
influence in correcting bad habits and cultivating good ones. 

Note.— Pupils should be careful, on all occasions, to use the best 
language they can command, and no unrefined or inaccurate expression 
should be allowed to pass unnoticed. Let it be understood by the mem- 
bers of the class that any special excellencies or faults which the teacher 
may observe in their use of language will be taken into account in 
summing up their written record of scholarship. 



THE ADVERB. 

[See Preparatory Lessons, § 15.] 

107. An adverb* is a word that is used to modify the 
sense of a verb, an adjective, or ano;her adverb : 

" He improves rapidly" " How long is the lesson "V " He will return 
very soon." 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

108. Smoothly, swiftly, wisely ; here, there, where ; now, soon, often. 

Examine the foregoing sets of words and tell what distinctions you 
discover between the different sets. 

Which denote manner ? Which place ? Which time ? 

Give other examples of adverbs that denote manner; — that denote 
place; — that denote time. 

* The word adverb is derived from two Latin words, ad and verbum, which signify 
to a verb. 



92 ETYMOLOGY. 

These distinctions show that different adverbs belong to dif- 
ferent classes. 

Adverbs may be divided into several classes, of which the 
following are the most important: 

1. Adverbs of manner : 
Justly, rapidly, thus, so, wisely. 

2. Of place : 
Here, there, above, within, out. 

3. Of time : 

Now, often, seldom, sood, late, by, formerly, then, always. 

4. Of degree : 
More, less, almost, nearly, very, only, hardly. 

5. Of cause : 
Therefore, wherefore, why. 

6. Of affirmation : 

Yes, yea, truly, certainly, surely, verily, doubtless. 

7. Of negation : 

Not, no, nay, nowise. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB. 

109. A conjunctive adverb is one that performs the 
double office of an adverb and a connective: 

" Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep." — Shakspeare. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

110. Many adverbs, like adjectives, admit of degrees of 
comparison: 

Wisely, more wisely, most wisely; soon, sooner, soonest ; much, 
more, most; little, less, least; well, better, best. 

EXERCISE. 

1. "Gold, though less serviceable than iron, acquires from its 
scarcity a value which is much superior." 

2. " The great plain of China is extremely well irrigated." 

3. " A bookman cannot be always bookish. 1 ' — Hood. 



ADVERBS — COMPOSITION. 93 

4. "An infinite number of varieties lies between limits which 
are not very far asunder." — Macaulay, 

5. " When a friend asketh, there is no to-morrow." 

6. " To speak, and to speak well, are two things." — Ben 
Jon son. 

7. " Every man sees with his own eyes, or does not see at all." 
— Emerson. 

8. " Make hay while the sun shines." 

Point out the adverbs in the foregoing sentences and tell which of them 
modify verbs; which adjectives, and which modify other adverbs. 

Which are conjunctive adverbs? 

Which of the adverbs admit of comparison ? Compare them. 

Open your readers and point out adverbs, and tell what ivords they 
modify. Compare those that admit of comparison. 

Point out conjunctive adverbs. 

Write sentences containing adverbs that modify verbs, adjectives and 
other adverbs. 

Write sentences containing conjunctive adverbs. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XIV. 

STUDY OF WORDS. 

Let the teacher assign a page in a reader to be studied as in Exercise I. 

Let each pupil be called on to give the meaning of an important or 
difficult word and embody it in a sentence of his own. Let the adverbs 
be pointed out, and referred to classes if this can readily be done. 



REVIEW. 

Define the Adverb. Examples. Name the principal classes of adverbs. 
Examples. What is a conjunctive adverb? Examples. Name adverbs 
in the different degrees of comparison. 



94r ETYMOLOGY. 

THE PREPOSITION. 

[See Preparatory Lessons, § 16.] 

111. A preposition* is a word that is used to show 

the relation of a noun or pronoun which it governs to 

some other word in the sentence : 

" He went from Boston to New York." " Bryant was the author of 
Thanatopsis." 

In the foregoing sentences, from governs Boston, and shows the rela- 
tion between Boston and went; to governs New York, and shows the 
relation between New York and went ; and of governs Thanatopsis, and 
shows the relation between Thanatopsis and author. See §§ 43, 230. 

EXAMPLES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Above, after, against, at, before, behind, by, except, for, from, in, into, 
of, on, over, through, to, under, with. 

Form sentences containing five or more prepositions and point out the 
relation which they express. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

[See Preparatory Lessons, § 17.] 

112. A conjunction} is a word that is used to con- 
nect words or sentences : 

" Seven and five are twelve." " Straws swim on the surface, but 
pearls lie at the bottom." 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

113. "He is passionate, but he is kind"; "He is kind, 
though he is passionate." 

* The word /; reposition is derived from the Latin word propositus, which signifies 
placed before. 

tThe word conjunction is derived from the Latin word covjungo, which signifies 
to join together. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 95 

"The rain falls, and the grass will grow' 1 ; "If the rain falls, 
the grass will grow. 11 

Examine the foregoing pairs of examples and fell which conjunctions 
connect clauses that are independent, and which of them connect subordi- 
nate or dependent clauses with principal clauses. See §§ 133, 134. 

This distinction marks the two principal classes of conjunc- 
tions. 

Conjunctions are divided into two classes : coordinate 
and subordinate. 

A coordinate conjunction is one that connects inde- 
pendent clauses of a sentence : 

"The sun shines, and the sky is clear." "This world is large, but 
there are others which are larger." See § 133. 

EXAMPLES OF COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 

And, but, for, hence, or, therefore. 

A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a 

subordinate or dependent clause with the principal clause 

of a sentence : 

u I will go, if you desire it." " We cannot thrive, unless we are 
industrious and frugal." See § 131. 

EXAMPLES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 



As, because, before, for, since, so, than, that, though, till, until, 
unless. 

Form sentences containing two or more coordinate conjunctions; — two 
or more subordinate. Tell what words or sentences are connected by them. 



96 ETYMOLOGY. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

[See Preparatory Lessons, § 18.] 

114. An interjection* is an exclamatory word that is 
used to express some strong or sudden emotion of the 
mind : 

Ah! alas! O! oh! ho! ha! indeed! pshaw! welcome! hurrah! 

The interjection O should be a capital. 

Other parts of speech are frequently used to perform the office 
of interjections: 

Hark! surprising! mercy! 



EXERCISE ON PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND 
INTERJECTIONS. 

1. " The winds which blow across the land are dry and arid, 
but those which cross the water are moist and full of vapor." 

2. " Do you hope to win respect when you flatter me?" 

3. " Camels walk through the heavy sands in the desert of 
Arabia." 

4. " In the delineation of character, Tacitus is unrivaled 
among historians, and has very few superiors among dramatists 
and novelists." — Macaidaij. 

5. "0 Cuckoo! shall I 'call thee Bird, 

Or but a wandering voice? 1 ' — Wordsworth. 

6. " Ah, how unjust to Nature and himself 

Is thoughtless, thankless, inconsistent man!" — Young. 

7. "Catch, then, catch the transient hour; 

Improve each shining moment as it flies." — Johnson. 

Point out the prepositions in the foregoing sentences, and the relations 
which they express. 

Point out the conjunctions, and the words or sentences connected by 
the?n. Which of them are coordinate conjunctions and which subor- 
dinate ? 

Point out the interjections. 

♦The word interjection is derived from the Latin word interjectus, which 
signifies thrown bekveen. 



EXERCISE — COMPOSITION. 97 

Open your readers and point out prepositions, telling the relations 
which they express. 

Point out conjunctions and tell what words or sentences are connected 
by them. 

Point out coordinate conjunctions; — subordinate conjunctions. Point 
out interjections. 

Write sentences containing prepositions ; — coordinate conjunctions ; — 
subordinate conjunctions ; — interjections. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XV. 

BELLS. 

Write twelve or more lines on Bells. 

Point out the prepositions , conjunctions, and interjections in your com- 
position. 

REVIEW. 

Define a Preposition. Examples. Illustrate the office of preposi- 
tions. Name ten or more prepositions. Define a Conjunction. Into 
what classes are conjunctions divided? What is a coordinate con- 
junction? Examples. A subordinate conjunction ? Examples. Define 
an Interjection. Examples. How should the interjection be written ? 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XVI. 

CONVERSATION. 

Let an interesting portion of history or a prominent historical char- 
acter furnish the subject for a conversation; as, The Discovery of Amer- 
ica; First Settlement of the Country ; Early Struggles icith the Indians; 
Alfred the Great; Benjamin Franklin; Captain John Smith, etc. 

Criticisms and suggestions. 



Capital Letters. 

115. The following classes of words should commence 
with capitals. 



[)8 ETYMOLOGY. 

1. The first word of a sentence. 

Examine any sentence on this page, and you will see that the first 
word commences with a capital letter. 

2. The first word of every line in poetry. 

Examine a piece of poetry in any of your school books, and you will 
find that all the lines commence with capitals. 

3. Names of the Supreme Being : 
God, Creator, The Almighty. 

4. Proper names and titles of honor or distinction : 

Benjamin Franklin; The City of London; Sir William Herschel; 
Alexander the Great; George the Fourth. 

5. Proper adjectives : 

The Elizabethan age; The German language; A Grecian sculptor. 

6. Every important word in a title or heading : 

Allibone's Dictionary of Authors; The Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire. 

7. The names of months, days, etc.: 
Tuesday, July, Easter. 

Capitals should also be used for the pronoun I and the 
interjection O: 

" Must I endure all this ? " " "Whence are thy beams, O Sun ! " 

Short passages of special importance, cards, titles, headings, etc., are 
often composed entirely of capitals. For examples see title-pages, heads 
of chapters, and sections, cards, etc. 

Open your reading books and point out examples of ivords commencing 
will capitals at the beginning of sentences; — lines of poetry commencing 
wdh capitals; — names of the Supreme Being commencing with capitals;— 
examples of proper names and honorary titles commencing ivith capi- 
tals; — examples of important words in titles or headings commencing with 
capitals; — examples of the pronoun I and the interjection O; — examples 
of titles, headings, etc., printed entirely in capitals. 



ITALICS AND FULL-FACE TYPE. 99 



Italic Letters. 

116. Italic letters are those which stand inclining. 
This sentence is printed in Italics. 

When an author wishes to distinguish a particular word or 
phrase for the sake of emphasis, or for any other purpose, it is 
generally printed in Italics: 

" I'll keep them all; he shall not have a Scot of them." 

In writing it is customary to underline such words as would 
be italicized in printing: 

This is also called underscoring. 

When a word is used merely as a word, it should generally be 
printed in Italics: 

"Who is applied to persons, and which to animals and inanimate 
things." — Murray. 

Sentences of special importance are often printed entirely in 
Italics. 

When a word or phrase embodied in an Italic sentence is to 
be distinguished from the rest, it is sometimes printed in Roman 
letters and sometimes in full- face type: 

"The grand clue to all syntactical parsing is the sense."— G. Brown. 
"The grand clue to all syntactical parsing is the sense." 

Turn to any of your school books and point out words that are printed 
in Italics for the sake of emphasis, or for any other purpose. 

Write a sentence containing some prominent word or phrase and dis- 
tinguish it by underlining. 

Full-face Type. 

117. Full-face type is often employed instead of capitals or 
Italics, to distinguish words, phrases, or sentences of special 
prominence or importance. This sentence is in full-face type. 

Point out examples of full-face type in this and other books. 



100 ETYMOLOGY. 

REVIEW. 

Name the different classes of words that commence with capitals and 
give examples of each. 

What are Italic letters ? When are they employed ? Examples. 
When are words underlined? Give an example. 
When is full-face type employed ? Examples. 



DERIVATION. 



[Derivation is an interesting and profitable branch of study for those who 
have time to devote to it, but it is not desirable to carry it beyond a few brief lessons 
in connection with an ordinary course of study in Grammar and Composition.] 

118. Derivation is that part of Etymology which 
treats of the origin and formation of words. 

119. Words are divided into two general classes ; 
primitive and derivative. 

A primitive "word is one that is not derived from any 
other word or words in the language : 
Man, strong, just, obey. 
The primitive form of a word is called its root. 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some 
other word or words : 

Manly, strength ; justice, justify, justification, justly, unjust, injus- 
tice, etc. ; disobey. 

Name ten or more examples of primitive words; — ten or more examples 
of derivative words. 

120. Words are also divided into two other classes, called 
simple and compound. 

A simple word is one that is not formed by uniting other 
words: 

Book, road, rail, stand, ink. 



DERIVATION. 101 

A compound word is one that is formed by joining two or 

more simple words without materially modifying either: 

Bookseller, railroad, inkstand. 

Name ten or more simple wards; — ten or more compound words. 

Note. — Exercises in Derivation are intended for classes that have 
access to one of the larger dictionaries. 

DERIVATION BY CHANGE OF LETTERS. 

121. Many derivative words are formed by changing the 
letters of primitive words: 

Dig, ditch; bind, bond; smite, smith; speak, speech; thief, thieve; 
pride, proud ; five, fifth. 

Give ten or more examples of ivords that are formed by changing the 
letters of primitive words. 

WORDS DERIVED FROM SAXON, LATIN, AND 
GREEK ROOTS. 

EXAMPLES. 

122. Bind, bond, band, bandage; from the Saxon word 
bindan, to bind. 

Terrace, terrier, territory; from the Latin word terra, the 
earth. 

Mediterranean; from the Latin words medins, middle, and 
terra, the earth. 

Chronic; from the Greek word chronos, time. 

Chronology; from the Greek words chronos, time, and logos, 
a saying, a statement. 

Take one of the larger dictionaries and write out the derivation of the 
following words : 

Drag, if, solo, folio, subterranean, agony, phonography. 



102 ETYMOLOGY. 



PBEFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

123. A prefix is a letter, syllable, or word joined to the 
beginning of a word: 

^lloft, rebuild, overcome, bespeak, wiesplace, outlive, inland, circum- 
scribe, reduce, dislike, obstruct, pronoun, subscribe, anarchy, 
Synthesis. 

Write fifteen or more words that illustrate the use of prefixes, and 
designate the language from which each prefix is derived. 

A suffix is a letter or syllable joined to the end of a word: 

Stormy, proud^, lawless, lawyer, actor, civile, friendship, resist- 
ance, bondage, goodness, magnetism, joyful, kingdom, singe?'. 

Write fifteen or more ivords that illustrate the use of suffixes. 

Most of the suffixes do not admit of precise definitions. 

Two or more prefixes or suffixes are sometimes employed in the same 
word; as, rediscover, powerfully. Rediscover contains two prefixes, re 
and dis; and powerfully, two suffixes, ful and ly. 

EXERCISE. 

Let the teacher select five lines from a reader, and let the pupils write 
out the derivation of all the words. 

Compare and correct. 



BEVIEW. 

Define Derivation. Into what two general classes are words divided ? 
Define a primitive word. Examples. What is the primitive form of a 
word called ? Define a derivative word. Examples. 

Into what other classes are words divided ? What is a simple word ? 
Examples. A compound word ? Examples. 

Give examples of derivative words formed by changing the letters of 
primitive "words. 

Define a Prefix. Examples. Define a Suffix. Examples. 



SYiNTAX. 



124. Syntax* is that part of grammar wnich treats of 
the construction of sentences according to the established 
laws of speech. 



ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 

125. The analysis of a sentence consists in resolving 
it into its constituent parts, and pointing out their rela- 
tions. 

Synthesis consists in putting words together to form 
sentences. 

ANALYSIS. 

Note. — Analysis is the correlative of synthesis, and the chief value 
of analysis is the aid it affords in synthesis, or the construction of sen- 
tences. 

SENTENCES. 

126. A sentence is a collection of words arranged in 

such a manner as to make complete sense : 

" Time flies." " Experience teaches many useful lessons." " Kind- 
ness to animals is no unworthy exercise of benevolence." 

Every sentence contains a subject and a finite verb. 

* Syntax, from the Greek words, s?jn, together, and taxis, arrangement. 

103 



104 ANALYSIS. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

127. Every simple sentence has two principal parts ; a 
subject and a predicate. See § 5. 

The subject represents that of which something is said, 
and the predicate tells what is said of the subject. 

Subjects. Predicates. 
" Hours . . pass." 
" The hours of youth . . pass away." 
" The golden hours of youth . . pass swiftly away." 

Form sentences and point out the subjects and the predicates. 

ELEMENTS. 

128. The elements of a sentence are the parts of 
which it is composed. 

A grammatical element may be a word, a phrase, 
or a clause. % 

129. The primary elements of a sentence are the 
simple unmodified subject and the simple unmodified 
predicate : 

u Parrots . . talk." 
"Some parrots . . talk very distinctly." 
"The tender vine . . clings to the wall." 

130. The primary elements may be modified by other ele- 
ments, and these by others still. 

1. An objective element is a word, phrase, or clause which 
stands as the object of a transitive verb: 

" Camels carry burdens." " They refused to le reconciled." " I 
know that he will return." 

2. An adjective element is a word, phrase, or clause used to 
perform the office of an adjective: 

" Sincerity is true wisdom." " The tree bearing fruit was spared." 
"This is the book which was lost." 



SENTENCES —CLAUSES. 105 

3. An adverbial element is a word, phrase, or clause used 
to perform the office of an adverb: 

"The idle seldom become rich." "Caesar returned in triumph" 
" We began our work token the sun was rising.' 1 

Open your readers and point out primary elements of sentences. 
Point out objective elements; — adjective elements; — adverbial elements. 
Form sentences containing objective elements; — adjective elements; — 
adverbial elements. Distinguish the different elements. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

131. Sentences are of three kinds ; simple, com- 
pound, and complex. 

A simple sentence is a sentence that contains one 
subject and one finite verb : 

"Mere parsimony is not economy." — Burke. 

CLAUSES. 

132. When two or more simple sentences are con- 
nected, each simple sentence is called a clause. 

" Cats love fish, . . but they are poor anglers." 
This example contains two clauses connected by the conjunction but. 

133. A compound sentence consists of two or more 

clauses so connected that each of them is complete and 

independent of itself: 

" I have studied these things, . . and you have not," 

" Patience is bitter, . . but its fruit is sweet." 

The members of a compound sentence are called coordinate 
clauses. See § 113. 

Take your readers and point out examples of simple sentences. 
Point out examples of compound sentences and distinguish the clauses. 
Form simple sentences. 
. Form compound sentences and point out the clauses. 



106 ANALYSIS. 

COMPOSITION EXERCISE XVII. 

VARIETY OF CONSTRUCTION. 

Two or more Simple Sentences Combined to form a 
Compound Sentence. 

Example. — "The banana-tree has tufts of splendid blossoms. The 
fruit resembles a cucumber in shape." Combined : The banana-tree has 
tufts of splendid blossoms, and the fruit resembles a cucumber in shape. 

Combine the following so as to form compound sentences: 

1. " Sir Isaac Newton was a man of varied learning." 
" His principal works were written in Latin. 1 ' 

2. u Time destroys the speculations of man." 
"It confirms the judgment of Nature." 

3. " The greatest friend of truth is Time." 
"Her greatest enemy is Prejudice." 

" Her constant companion is Humility." 

4. "An egotist will always speak of himself, either in praise 

or in censure." 
"A modest man ever shuns making himself the subject of 
his conversation." 

5. " Vice stings us, even in our pleasures." 
" Virtue consoles us, even in our pains." 

Write simple sentences and combine them into compound sentences. 
Write compound sentences and separate them into simple sentences. 



134. A complex sentence consists of one principal 
clause and one or more subordinate clauses. See § 113. 

The clause which contains the principal subject and predicate 
is called the principal clause; and a subordinate clause is one 
which is dependent upon the principal clause. 

In the sentence "Amsterdam is full of canals, which divide the city 
into nearly a hundred islands," the principal clause is, Amsterdam is full 
of canals, and the subordinate clause is, which divide the city into nearly a 
hundred islands. 

The subordinate clause is a modifier of the principal clause. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES COMPOSITION. 107 

Open your readers a)td point out examples of complex sentences, and 
tell which are the principal clauses and which the subordinate. 

Form complex sentences and tell which are the principal clauses and 
which the subordinate. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XVIII. 

VARIETY OF CONSTRUCTION. 

Two or more Simple Sentences Combined to form a 
Complex Sentence. 

Example. — " The tree was struck by lightning. It is dead at the top." 
Combined : The tree which was struck by lightning is dead at the top. 

Combine the following so as to form complex sentences: 

1. "Themistocles was the opponent of Aristides." 
" Aristides was banished at his instigation." 

2. " Janus was a Roman deity." 

" He presided over the beginnings of things.'" 

3. " Dido was daughter of the Tyrian king Belus, and sister 

of Pygmalion. 11 
" Pvgmalion succeeded to the crown after the death of his 
father." 

4. " Miltiades is chiefly renowned for his success against the 

Persians at the battle of Marathon." 
" He there defeated an army of one hundred thousand 

Persian invaders." 
" His own army consisted of ten thousand Greeks." 

Write simple sentences and form them into complex sentences. 
Write complex sentences and separate them into simple sentences. 



135. Classes of Sicbordinate Clauses. — There are three 
kinds of subordinate clauses ; — substantive, adjective, 
and adverbial. 



108 ANALYSIS. 

1. A substantive clause is one that performs the 
office of a noun. 

" That such a temporary life as we now live is better than no being, is 
evident by the high value we put upon it." — Locke. The sub- 
stantive clause is here both the subordinate clause of the com- 
plex sentence and the subject of the verb is in the principal 
clause. 

" Caesar asserted that the Romans had been faithful." In this sen- 
tence the subordinate clause performs the office of a noun, and 
is the object of the transitive verb asserted in the principal 
clause. 

2. An adjective clause is one that performs the office 

of an adjective. 

" The truly strong and sound mind is the mind that can embrace 
equally great things and small." — Johnson. The clause that can 
embrace equally great things and small is used as an adjective 
limiting mind. 

3. An adverbial clause is one that performs the office 

of an adverb. 

" Pope kept his pieces very long in his hands tchile he considered 
and reconsidered them." The clause ichile he considered and 
reconsidered them is used in the sense of an adverb modifying 
the verb kept. 

Open your readers and point out examples of substantive clauses; — of 
adjective clauses; — of adverbial clauses. 

Form sentences containing substantive clauses; — adjective clauses; — 
adverbial clauses. 

PHRASES. 

136. A phrase is a short expression which does not 
form a complete sentence : 

"In vain" ; " long ago" ; " to confess the truth " ; "I saw him walking 
in the field " ; " He was present on that occasion." 
Open your readers and point out examples of phrases. 

ADJUNCTS. 

137. A word, phrase, or clause used to explain or 



ADJUNCTS — EXERCISE. 109 

modify another word, phrase, or clause is called an 
adjunct : 

"Tall trees " ; " Men of learning " ; " It moves rapidly " • "I hear 
the sound"; " Printing was invented in the fifteenth century." 
. The whole phrase in the fifteenth century is here an adjunct of 
was invented. The and. fifteenth are also adjuncts of century. 

Note.— The word adjunct signifies joined to. It is a general term 
applied to any element of a sentence that modifies any other element. 

Open your readers and point out examples of adjuncts. 

Form sentences containing adjuncts and point out the adjuncts. 

EXERCISE. 

1. " Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown." 

2. "Addison was good company with his intimate friends, 
but in mixed company he preserved his dignity by a stiff and 
reserved silence. " 

3. " All travel has its advantages." 

4. " When Hannibal marched into Italy, he was obliged to 
open a way over the mountains." 

5. "The first step to knowledge is to know that we are igno- 
rant." — Cecil. 

6. " ' I can't get out,' said the parrot." 

7. " He who thinks he can find within himself the means of 
doing without others is much mistaken; but he who thinks that 
others cannot do without him is still more mistaken." 

8. " You say you are a better soldier." 

9. " It has long been observed that the idea of beauty is vague 
and undefined." — Johnson. 

10. " For vast are the hosts here contending, 

And deep in the heart of each man 
Is burning the love of his country, 

Which urges him on to the van." — E. H. Wells. 

Which of the foregoing sentences are simple? Which compound? 
Which complex ? 

Which of the clauses are coordinate ? Which are subordinate ? 

Point out the substantive clauses; — the adjective clauses; — the ad- 
verbial clauses. 

Write compound sentences and distinguish the clauses. 

Write complex sentences and distinguish the clauses. 



110 ANALYSIS. 



REVIEW. 

Define Syntax. Define Analysis; — Synthesis. What is a sentence? 
Examples. What does every sentence contain ? What are the princi- 
pal parts of a sentence? What is the subject? Examples. The predi- 
cate ? Examples. 

What are the elements of a sentence ? What is a grammatical ele- 
ment? What are the primary elements? Examples. What is an 
objective element? Examples. An adjective element? Examples. 
An adverbial element? Examples. 

Into what three classes are sentences divided ? Define a simple sen- 
tence? Examples. What is a clause? Examples. What is a com- 
pound sentence ? Examples. What are its members called? 

Define a complex sentence. What is the principal clause ? The sub- 
ordinate clause? Give examples of complex sentences, distinguishing 
the principal and subordinate clauses. Into what classes are subor- 
dinate clauses divided? Define a substantive clause. Examples. An 
adjective clause. Examples. An adverbial clause. Examples. 

What is a phrase ? Examples. An adjunct? Examples. 



GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL DISTINCTIONS. 

138. The subject and the predicate of a sentence may 
be distinguished as either grammatical or logical. 

The grammatical subject is the simple subject taken 

by itself. It is either a noun, "or some word, phrase, or 

clause used as a noun : 

"Hours . . pass." 
"The hours of youth . . pass away." 
" The golden hours of youth . . pass swiftly away." 

"We spake of many a vanished scene." — Longfellow, 

" To behold is not necessarily to observe." — Humboldt. 

"Walking is the best exercise." 

" To favor the ill is to injure the good." 

" Doing good is the only certainly happy action of a man's life." 

Sir Philip Sidney. 
" Thai he never will is sure." 



GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL DISTINCTIONS. Ill 

The grammatical predicate is the simple predicate 

taken by itself. It is always a finite verb : 

M Hours . . pass." 
"The hours of youth . . pass away." 
11 The golden hours of youth . . pass swiftly away." 

M Dryden lacked the diligence of Pope." 

" The virtues, like the muses, are always seen in groups." — Jane 
Porter. 

Open your readers and point out five or more grammatical subjects; — 
five or more grammatical predicates. 

Form sentences containing grammatical subjects and grammatical 
predicates, and point out the grammatical subjects and the grammatical 
predicates. 

139. The logical subject consists of the grammatical 
subject and all its modifying adjuncts. It includes all the 
words that are employed to express the whole idea of the 
subject : 

'''Labor is often a pleasure "; "Hard labor does not always receive 
its reward M ; "The labor of the brain is the growth of the mind. 11 

"Literary life is full of curious phenomena.' 1 — Holmes. 

"Henry W. Longfellow, an American poet, was born in Portland, 
Maine, in 1807." 

Note. — When the grammatical subject is unmodified, the grammat- 
ical subject and the logical subject are the same. In the sentence 
u Life is war," the whole idea of the subject is expressed by the noun 
Life. It is therefore both the grammatical and the logical subject. 

Open your readers and point out examples of grammatical subjects; — 
of logical subjects. 

Point out sentences in which the grammatical subjects are also the 
logical subjects. 

Form sentences containing both grammatical and logical subjects, and 
pond out the grammatical subjects and the logical subjects. 

Form sentences in which the grammatical subjects are also the logical 
subjects. 

140. The logical predicate consists of the grammat- 
ical predicate and all its modifying adjuncts. It includes 



112 ANALYSIS. 

all the words that are employed to express the whole idea 

of the predicate : 

"The hours pass." 
"The hours pass away." 
"The hours pass swiftly away." 
" Dryden lacked the diligence of Pope." 
" The virtues, like the muses, are always seen in groups." 
" Bulwer borrowed the incidents of his Roman stories from legends 
of a thousand years before " 

Note. — When the grammatical predicate is unmodified, the grammat- 
ical and logical predicate are the same. In the sentence " Man thinks," 
the whole idea of the predicate is expressed by the verb thinks. It is 
therefore both the grammatical and the logical predicate. 

Open your readers and point out examples of grammatical predicates; — 
of logical predicates. 

Point out sentences in which the grammatical predicates are also the 
logical predicates. 

Form sentences containing both grammatical and logical predicates, 
and point out the grammatical predicates and the logical predicates. 

Form sentences in which the grammatical predicates are also the log" 
ical predicates. 



CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 
141. Phrases are distinguished by their forms, as follows: 

1. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and its 
object, either with or without modifying adjuncts: 

"He came in haste"; "He came in great haste" ; "He came in 

very great haste." 
"Hours spent in idleness bear bitter fruit." 

2. A participial phrase consists of a participle and its modi- 
fying adjuncts: 

" He was found waiting very impatiently." " Hours spent in idle- 
ness bear bitter fruit." " He was at his desk, writing a letter" 









CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 113 

3. An infinitive phrase consists of a verb in the infinitive 
and its modifying adjuncts: 

14 He promised to return soon "j " He promised to return in half an 

hour.''' 
44 Cervantes, the immortal genius of Spain, is supposed to have 

wanted bread." — Disraeli. 

4. An idiomatic phrase is a peculiar mode of expression 
which is stamped by the usage of the language, but is not gov- 
erned by the ordinary rules of grammar: 

"By and by "; "Hand in hand." 

Form sentences containing a prepositional phrase; — a participial 
phrase; — an infinitive phrase; — an idiomatic phrase. Point out the 
phrases. 

142. Phrases are also distinguished according to their uses, as 
substantive, adjective, and adverbial. 

EXERCISE. 

1. " Every man is a volume, if you know how to read him." — 
Channing. 

2. " Stand not upon the order of your going, but go at once.'" 
— Shakspeare. 

3. " He made his final sally forth upon the world, hoping all 
things, believing all things, little anticipating the chequered ills 
in store for him." — Irving. 

4. "I swam ere I could recover the shore, five-and-thirty 
leagues, off and on, by this light." — Shakspeare. 

5. " Men overpowered by distress eagerly listen to the first 
offers of relief, close with every scheme, and believe every 
promise.' ' — Johnson. 

6. ''Absence of occupation is not rest; 

A mind quite vacant is a mind distress'd." — Cowper. 

Point out the grammatical subjects in the foregoing sentences; — the 
grammatical predicates. 

Point out the logical subjects; — the logical predicates. 

Point out the prepositional phrases; — the participial phrases; — the 
infinitive phrases; — the idiomatic phrases. 

Open your readers and point out examples of grammatical subjects; — 
of grammatical predicates. 



114 ANALYSIS — COMPOSITION. 

Point out examples of logical subjects;— of logical predicates. 

Point out examples of prepositional phrases; — of participial phrases ; 
— of infinitive phrases. 

W rite sentences containing prepositional phrases; — participial phrases; 
- — infinitive phrases; — idiomatic phrases. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XIX. 

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

Words Changed to Phrases, and Phrases to Words. 

Example, — The Augustan age. Changed : The age of Augustus. 






Change the italicized words below to phrases; — the italicized phrases 
to ivords. 

1. " Fore war rid, forearmed" 

2. " Nothing certainly is more magnificent than the imagina- 
tion of a beggar." — Irving. 

3. "The rays of happiness, like those of light, are colorless 
when unbroken." — Longfelloiv. 

4. "Books, however, were the least part of the education of 
an Athenian citizen. 11 — Macanlay. 

5. "A man who gives his children habits of industry, pro- 
vides for them better than by giving them a fortune. " — Whately. 

6. " Home, Sweet Home, was written by a homeless man. 11 

7. " Whatever may be our natural talents, the art of writing 
is not acquired all at once." 

8. " A wise man will make more opportunities than he finds." 
— Lord Bacon. 

9. " Like angel-visits, few and far between. 11 — Campbell. 

Write sentences containing words that may be changed to phrases. 
Change them. 

Write sentences containing phrases that may be changed to ivords, 

Change them. 

REVIEW. 

What is the grammatical subject of a sentence? Examples. The 
grammatical predicate? Examples. 

What is the logical subject of a sentence? Examples. The logical 
predicate ? Examples. 



MODIFICATIONS OF GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT. 115 

Name the different kinds of phrases. What is a prepositional 
phrase? Examples. A participial phrase? Examples. An infinitive 
phrase? Examples. An idiomatic phrase? Examples. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT. 
143, The grammatical subject may be modified, — 

1. By an adjective, either alone or in connection with its own 
adjuncts: 

"Eloquent speakers are not always good talkers' 1 ; "The most 

eloquent speakers are not always distinguished as writers." 
M Pompey, jealous of Ccesar, labored to destroy his influence.' 1 

2. By a participle, either alone or with its adjuncts: 

" The chiseled marble is itself the echo of poetic thought." 
"An epithet or metaphor drawn from nature ennobles art. 1 ' — John" 
son. 

3. By a verb in the infinitive, either alone or with its ad- 
juncts: 

"An insatiable desire to conquer was Alexander's leading charac- 
teristic." 

" The way to gain a good reputation is to endeavor to be what you 
desire to appear." 

4. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case : 

"The child's eye needs no horizon to its prospect." — Wilmott. 
"His praise is lost who waits till all commend." — Pope, 

5. By a noun or pronoun in apposition, either alone or with 
its adjuncts: 

" I, Simon Clark, do hereby declare and publish." 
"Oliver Wendell Holmes, an American physician and poet, was 
born in Cambridge, Mass., in 1809." 

6. By a prepositional phrase : 

"Reading without purpose is sauntering, not exercise." — Bulwer. 
"A man of upright character Is always respected." 

7. By an entire clause : 

" He that is much flattered soon learns to flatter himself." — Johnson. 



116 ANALYSIS. 

Open your readers and point out examples of grammatical subjects 
modified by adjectives; — by participles ; — by infinitives; — by possesswes ; — 
by nouns in apposition; — by prepositional phrases ; — by entire clauses. 

Form sentences containing grammatical subjects modified by adjec- 
tives; — by participles; — by infinitives; — by possessives ; — by nouns in appo- 
sition; — by prepositional phrases ; — by entire clauses. 



Punctuation* 



' 



144. When the subject of a verb is extended to con- 
siderable length, it is generally separated from the verb 
by a comma : 

"The effect of this universal diffusion of gay and splendid light, 
was to render the preponderating deep green more solemn." — 
Dicight. 

" How dearly it remembered the parent island, is told by the 
English names of its towns." — Bancroft. 

Write sentences illustrating the above rule for punctuation. 

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBJECTS. 

145. The subject of a sentence may be either simple 
or compound. 

A simple subject is a single subject, either grammat- 
ical or logical : 

" Thought is free." "An acre of performance is worth the whole 
world of promise." 

In the second example, acre is the simple grammatical subject, and 
an acre of performance is the simple logical subject. 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple 
subjects so connected as to form one joint subject of a 
verb : 

" Repose and cheerfulness are the badge of the gentleman — repose 
in energy." — Emerson. 

" The portraits and the statues of the honored dead kindle the gener- 
ous ambition of the youthful aspirant to fame/' — Edward 
Everett. 



SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBJECTS, 117 

In the second example, the compound grammatical subject is com- 
posed of portraits and statues, and the compound logical subject is 
composed of the portraits and the statues of the honored dead. 

Open your readers and point out five or more simple grammatical sub- 
jects;— five or more simple logical subjects; — three or more compound 
grammatical subjects; — three or more compound logical subjects. 

Form sentences containing simple grammatical subjects; — simple logical 
subjects; — compound grammatical subjects; — compound logical subjects. 

EXERCISE. 

1. " To read without reflecting is like eating without digest- 
ing." — Burke. 

2. " He who has a superlative for everything, wants a meas- 
ure for the great or small. 1 ' 

3. " Words once spoken can never be recalled." 

4. "Oar thoughts are ours; their ends are none of our own." 
— Shakspeare. 

5. " Spring, the Raphael of the northern earth, stood already 
out of doors." 

6. "The familiar seems trivial, and only the distant and un- 
known completely fill and satisfy the mind." — Longfellow. 

7. " The veil which covers the face of futurity, is woven by 
the hand of mercy." — Buliver. 

8. " Obscurity and affectation are the two greatest faults of 
style." — Macaulaif. 

9. " In the process of ordinary distillation the liquid to be 
distilled is heated and converted into vapor in one vessel, and 
chilled and reconverted into liquor in another." — Tyndall. 

10. " A cock, having found a pearl, said that a grain of corn 
would be of more value to him." 

11. " The surest way not to fail, is to determine to succeed." — 
Sheridan. 

12. " Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, 

Comes dancing from the east." — Milton. 

Point out examples of grammatical subjects in the foregoing sentences; — 
of logical subjects. 

Point out examples of grammatical subjects modified by adjectives; — 
by participles; — by verbs in the infinitive; — by possessives; — by nouns in 
apposition; — by prepositional phrases; — by clauses. 

Point out examples of compound subjects. 



118 ANALYSIS. 



ed 



Write sentences containing examples of grammatical subjects modified 
by adjectives; — by participles ; — by verbs in the infinitive; — by possess- 
ives; — by nouns in apposition; — by prepositional phrases; — by clauses. 

Write sentences containing compound subjects and point out the com- 
pound subjects. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE. 
146. The grammatical predicate may be modified, — 

1. By a direct object, either alone or with its own modifying 
adjuncts. 

" He reads books." 

44 He reads many books." 

44 He reads books of little value." 

44 He loves to talk icith mariners." 

2. By a subjective complement.* A subjective complement 
is a word, phrase, or clause used to complete what is predicated 
of the subject: 

44 Virtue is beauty." — Shakspeare. 
44 To be employed is to be happy." — Gray. 

" The truth is that every man is, to a great extent, the creature of the 
age. ' ' — Macau lay. 

3. By an objective complement. An objective complement 

is a word or phrase used to complete what is predicated of the 
object: 

" Six times they made Marius consul." 

44 Make yourself easy as to that, Kate." 

44 We saw the vessel come into port." 

4. By an adverbial. An adverbial is a word, phrase, or 
clause used to perform the office of an adverb: 

44 He is well paid that is well satisfied. " — Shakspeare. 

44 Deliver me the fort instantly. " — Bancroft. 

44 The modern majesty consists in work." — Carlyle. 

"Xenophon, with his large army, retreated fifteen hundred miles" 

44 Light griefs do speak, while sorrow's tongue is bound." 

*A complement is that which fills up or completes. 






MODIFICATIONS OF IRREGULAR PREDICATE. 119 

Open your readers and point out examples of grammatical predicates 
modified by direct objects; — by subjective complements; — by objective com- 
plements ; — by adverbials. 

Form sentences containing grammatical predicates modified by direct 
objects; — by subjective complements; — by objective complements; — by 
adverbials. 

EXERCISE. 

1. " Thought and language act and react upon each other." 

2. " The Nile makes the valley fertile." 

3. ''Judging is balancing on account, and determining on 
which side the odds lie." 

4. " He who knows right principles is not equal to him who 
loves them." 

5. " Custom doth make dotards of us all." 

6. " Long experience made him sage." 

7. " Now came still evening on." 

Point out examples of grammatical predicates in the foregoing sen' 
tences; — of logical predicates. 

Point out examples of grammatical predicates modified by direct 
objects; — by subjective complements; — by objective complements; — by ad- 
verbials. 

Write sentences containing examples of grammatical predicates modi- 
fied by direct objects; — by subjective complements; — by objective comple- 
ments; — by adverbials. 

ELLIPSIS. 

147. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words 
which are necessary to complete the grammatical con- 
struction. 

Examples, 

" He is fitting for Yale [college]." 

"Sorrow turns the stars into mourners, and [turns] every wind of 

heaven into a dirge." 
"Education, [and] station, [and] sex, [and] age, and accidental 

associations, produce infinite shades of variety." — Macaulay. 
"Revenge is an act of passion; vengeance, [is an actj of justice." 

— Johmon. 



120 ANALYSIS — ELLIPSIS. 

Open your readers and point out examples of ellipsis, and supply the 
parts omitted. 

Form sentences and phrases containing examples of ellipsis, and tell 
what words are omitted. 

Punctuation. 

148. Three or more successive words or phrases in the 
same construction, with or without conjunctions expressed, 
should generally be separated by commas : 

44 Little, Brown, and Company." u Industry, honesty, and temper- 
ance are essential to happiness." 4 ' There is still something to 
add, to alter, or to reject." 

Write sentences illustrating the above rule for punctuation. 



REVIEW. 

How may the grammatical subject be modified? Examples of each. 

What is the rule for the use of the comma after the subject of a verb? 

What is a simple subject? Examples. A compound subject? Exam- 
ples. 

How may the grammatical predicate be modified ? Give examples of 
a direct object. What is a subjective complement? Examples. An 
objective complement? Examples. An adverbial? Examples. 

What is Ellipsis ? Examples. 

Rule for the use of the comma when three or more successive words 
or phrases occur in the same construction. 



ORAL AND WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 

149. Grammatical Analysis is essential to a full 
and thorough understanding of the structure of sentences, 
and the various offices and relations of their component 
parts ; but analysis is a means, not an end. The great 
end of all grammatical study is not analysis, but syn- 
thesis; not taking words apart, but putting them together. 



DIAGRAM ANALYSIS. 121 

Note. — Pupils should have frequent exercises in analysis till they are 
able to explain readily the relations and offices of the different parts of 
a sentence. As soon as this is accomplished, regular lessons in analysis 
should be dispensed with, but pupils should be called on occasionally to 
analyze sentences during their whole course in grammar and composi- 
tion. 

DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYZING. 

150. 1. Tell whether the sentence is simple, complex, or 
compound. 

2. If the sentence is simple, resolve it into its logical subject 
and logical predicate. 

3. Point out the grammatical subject and the grammatical 
predicate. 

4. Point out the modifying adjuncts of the subject and tell 
the office and relation of each word or phrase. Analyze the 
predicate in the same manner. 

5. In analyzing a complex sentence, distinguish the principal 
and subordinate clauses and point out their connection. Tell 
whether the subordinate clauses are substantive, adjective, or 
adverbial, and point out their relations. Analyze each of the 
simple sentences. 

6. In analyzing a compound sentence, resolve it into simple 
coordinate clauses and point out their connection. Analyze each 
of the simple sentences. 

DIAGRAM ANALYSIS. 

151. The analysis of a sentence may be illustrated by 
means of a diagram, or map, in which the structure of 
the sentence and its analysis into parts are clearly and 
distinctly presented to the eye. 

CONSTRUCTION OF DIAGRAMS. 

1. The grammatical subject and the grammatical predicate 
are written on the same line. Both are double-underlined and 
they are connected by a single line. 

2. Modifying adjuncts are placed under the wwds which they 
modify. 

[There are some practical advantages in having these adjuncts underlined, but the 
underlining can be emploved or omitted, at the discretion of teachers.] 
6 



122 ANALYSIS. 

3. Words, phrases, or clauses that are grammatically con- 
nected are joined by lines; but when words, phrases, or clauses 
are used independently, the connecting lines are omitted. 

4. When the predicate verb is transitive, its direct object is 
distinguished from other modifying adjuncts by double-under- 
lining. 

5. A small cross, X, is employed to show that a word must 
be supplied to complete the grammatical construction. 

6. Words connected by coordinate conjunctions are written 
in their natural order and joined by connecting lines. When 
words are thus codrdinately connected, a continuous line is placed 
under them all; or if that is impracticable, the connection of the 
coordinate parts is shown by a tie or brace. 

MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 

152. "Wise men are instructed by reason." 

This is a simple sentence. 

The logical subject is wise men; and the logical predicate is are 
instructed by reason. 

The grammatical subject is men, and the grammatical predicate is 
are instructed. 

The grammatical subject men is modified by the adjective wise. 

The grammatical predicate are instructed is modified by the prepo- 
sitional phrase by reason. Reason is the object of the preposition 
by, which relates it to are instructed. 

Diagram. 

men — are instructed 



Wise by 

T 

reason 



ANALYSIS. 



123 



153. " Moses dwelt forty years in the land of Midian." 
Moses dwelt 



years 
forty 



land 
the of 
Midi an 



154. " Nature had made Mr. Churchill a poet." 
Nature — had made 



Mr. Churchill poet 



See § 146. 



155. " Lend me your ears." — Shakspeare. 
( x ) — lend 



me ears 



your 



156. "Our country is ruined if it becomes too pros- 
perous." — B. B. Edwards. 

This is a complex sentence, of which the principal clause is Our 
country is ruined, and the subordinate clause is it becomes too 
prosperous. The clauses are connected by the conjunction if. 
The subordinate clause is adverbial, and modifies the verb is 
ruined in the principal clause. 

Analysis of the principal clause: The logical subject is our coun- 
try, and is ruined is the logical predicate. 

The grammatical subject is country, and is ruined is the gram- 
matical predicate. 

Country is modified by the possessive pronoun our. 



124 ANALYSIS. 

Is ruined is unmodified, except by the subordinate clause. 
Analysis of the subordinate clause: The logical subject is it, and 

becomes too prosperous is the logical predicate. 
The grammatical subject is it, an,d becomes is the grammatical 

predicate. 
It is unmodified. 
Becomes is modified by the predicate adjective prosperous, which is 

modified by the adverb too. 



counti 


y - 




is ruined 


Our 


A 

i 




it 


— becomes 






i 

prosperous 

i 

too 



■\ 






157. "They are never alone who are accompanied 
with noble thoughts." — Sir Philip Sidney. 

This is a complex sentence, of which the principal clause is they 
are never alone, and the subordinate clause is icho are accom- 
panied with noble thoughts. The clauses are connected by the 
relative pronoun wJw, which relates to they in the principal 
clause, and is the subject of are accompanied in the subordinate 
clause. The subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of they. 
[Other parts analyzed as in previous examples.] 

They — are 



I 
alone 



who — are accompanied 



with 



thoughts 

' i ' 

noble 



ANALYSIS. 125 

158. " That you have wronged me dotli appear in 
this. ' ? — Shakspeare. 

This is a complex sentence, in which a substantive clause is used 
as the subordinate clause of the sentence, and also as the sub- 
ject of the principal clause. 

The principal clause is the whole sentence, That you have wronged 
me doth appear in this; and the subordinate clause is That you 
have wronged me. The word That serves to introduce the sub- 
stantive clause and to connect the principal and the subordi- 
nate clause. 

The logical subject of the principal clause is That you have wronged 
me; and the logical predicate is doth appear in this. 

The grammatical subject is That you have wronged me; and the 
grammatical predicate is doth appear. 

[Remainder of analysis as in previous examples.] 

That 



I I 

you — have wronged 

= i 

me 



v — doth appear 



I 
this 



159. " He did what was required of him." 

This is a complex sentence, of which the principal clause is He 
did wliat (as antecedent), and the subordinate clause is what (as 
relative) was required of him. The clauses are connected by the 
compound relative what, which is the object of did in the prin- 
cipal clause, and the subject of was required, in the subordinate 
clause. The subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of 
what, taken as antecedent. 

[Other parts analyzed as in previous examples.] 

He — did 

what — was required 

i 

him 



126 



ANALYSIS. 



180. " Talent gracefully adorns life; but Will carries 

us victoriously through the struggle." 

This is a compound sentence, of which the coordinate clauses are 
Talent gracefully adorns life, and Will carries us victoriously 
through the struggle. They are connected by the conjunction but. 

[Clauses analyzed as in previous examples.] 



Talent 



adorns ' 



I I 

gracefully life 



-but- 



-^Will- 



us victoriously through 



struggle 



the 



161. " Scenes must be beautiful which daily viewed, 
Please daily, and whose novel y survives 
Long knowledge and the scrutiny of years." 

— Cow per. 

This is a complex sentence, containing a principal clause and two 

subordinate clauses. 
The principal clause is Scenes must be beautiful. 
The subordinate clauses are, — 

1. Which daily viewed, please daily. 

2. Whose novelty survives long knowledge and the scrutiny of years. 

The subordinate clauses are connected by the coordinate conjunc- 
tion and. 

The first subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of scenes. It 
is connected to the principal clause by the relative pronoun 
which, which is the subject of please in the subordinate clause, 
and relates to scenes in the principal clause. 

The second subordinate clause is an adjective modifier of scenes. 
It is connected to the principal clause by the relative pronoun 
wlwse, which modifies novelty in the subordinate clause and 
relates to scenes in the principal clause. 

[Separate clauses analyzed as in previous examples.] 



ANALYSIS. 



127 



Scenes 



must be 



which — please " 



viewed daily 



dailv 



and 



beautiful 



novelty 



survives 



whose knowledge "] 



long 



scrutiny 
)■ and -i the of 



j 



1 



162. " You say you are a better soldier." 

— Shakspeare. 

This is a complex sentence, in which the substantive clause you 
are a better soldier is used as the subordinate clause of the sen- 
tence. It is also the object of the verb say in the principal 

clause. 

You say 

~ T 

X you — are "\ 

= ~~r 

soldier 
a better 



163. "Wisdom and truth, the offspring of the sky, 
are immortal ; but cunning and deception, the meteors 
of the earth, after glittering for a moment, must pass 
away." — Robert Hall. 



Wisdom - and - truth — are 



offspring 

the _o£ 

I 
sky 

I 
the 



Cunning- and -deception — must pass 



immortal 



vbut- 



I 
meteors 



the of 



I 
earth 



the 



after away 

glittering 

i 

i 

for 

T" 

moment 



128 ANALYSIS. 

164. "It is not for man to rest in absolute content- 
ment. ' ' — Southey. 

It — is 



not for 



/~ to rest ^ 
in 



contentment 



absolute 



165. "Whatsoever distracts the pleasure, lessens it." 
-Dryden. 



lessens 




pleasure 



I 
the 



166. u How dearly it remembered the parent island, 
is told by the English names of its towns." — Bancroft. 



It — remembered 


- — is told 




i 

dearly 


island 




1 
how 


i i 

the parent 
J 


i 

by 
1 

names 






t 


1 1 
he English 


1 
of 

1 
towns 



its 



ANALYSIS. 129 

167. "I am monarch of all I survey." — Cowjper. 

I — am 



monarch 

Jill 
I — survey 

: r 

(X) 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XX. 

VARIETY OF CONSTRUCTION. 

Single simple sentences expanded into complex sentences. 
See § 134. 

Example. — "At his death, public affairs fell into a chaos of dis- 
order." Expanded: When he died, public affairs fell into a 
chaos of disorder. 
Expand the following simple sentences into complex sentences: 

1. "The republic of Sparta had two magistrates, called 
kings. 1 ' 

2. " Lexington, famous as the scene of the first conflict in the 
Revolutionary war, is a town about eleven miles northwest from 
Boston." 

3. '• The foreign commerce of the Romans appears very un- 
important, compared with the extensive mercantile transactions 
of our own times." 

4. " Phoenicia was little more than a narrow strip of ground 
situated between Mount Libanus and the sea." 

5. " Braddock's defeat was a memorable event in the French 
and Indian war, preceding the American Revolution." 

Write simple sentences and expand them into complex sentences. 
Write complex sentences and resolve them into simple ones. 



130 SYNTAX. 



PARSING. 

168. Note. — Pupils should have sufficient practice in parsing to be 
able to give all the etymological modifications and syntactical relations 
of words in ordinary discourse. As soon as this is accomplished, formal 
exercises in parsing should be dispensed with; but pupils should be 
called on to parse some of the more difficult words at all stages of their 
progress. It will generally be best to omit the etymological modifica- 
tions and give only the syntax. See § 173. 

Teachers should take special pains to render exercises in parsing as 
intellectual as possible. Pupils should be taught that correct parsing 
always requires correct thinking, and that it is indispensably necessary 
for them to understand thoroughly the sense of any piece of writing be- 
fore they attempt to parse it. They should be required to explain the 
more difficult passages by transposing the order of the words, or by 
expressing the sense in their own language ; but the words employed by 
the author should be preserved unaltered in parsing. 

169. Parsing is naming the part of speech to which a 
word belongs, and giving its class, properties, and rela- 
tions. 

ORDER OF PARSING. 

170. The following order of parsing will serve as a general 
guide for classes of beginners: 

Nouns. — A noun; common or proper; gender; person; num- 
ber; case; syntax and rule. 

Pronouns. — A pronoun; class; gender; person; number; — if a 
relative pronoun, point out its antecedent; — case? — decline 
it, if declinable; — syntax and rule. 

Adjectives. — An adjective; class; degree of comparison, if com- 
parable, and all its forms of comparison; syntax and rule. If 
an article: — An article; definite or indefinite; syntax and rule. 

Verbs.: — A verb; regular or irregular; principal parts; transi- 
tive or intransitive; — if transitive, tell whether it is in the 
active or passive voice; mode; tense; person and number; 
syntax and rule. If a participle: — A participle; principal 
parts of the verb; perfect or imperfect; transitive or intransi- 
tive; — if transitive, tell whether it is in the active or passive 
voice; — syntax and rule. 



PARSING. 131 

Adverbs. — An adverb; class, if readily referred to a class; syn- 
tax and rule. 

Prepositions. — A preposition; syntax and rule. 

Conjunctions. — A conjunction; coordinate or subordinate; syn- 
tax and rule. 

Interjections. — An interjection; rule. 

MODELS OF PARSING. 

[Models of parsing" are inserted here for convenient reference.] 

171. "Ceremonies are different in every country; but 
true politeness is everywhere the same." — Goldsmith. 

Ceremonies is a common noun; neuter gender; third person; 
plural number; nominative case; and subject of the verb are. 
The subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. § 174. 

Are is an irregular verb, — am or be, was, been; intransitive; in- 
dicative mode ; present tense ; third person, plural ; and agrees 
with its subject ceremonies. A verb must agree with its subject 
in number and person. § 202. 

Different is a qualifying adjective; positive degree, — different, 
more different, most different; and belongs to ceremonies. Ad- 
jectives belong to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify or 
limit. § 181). 

In is a preposition, and shows the relation between country and 
different. Prepositions connect words and show the relation 
between them. § 227. 

Every is a limiting adjective, and belongs to country. Adjectives 
belong to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify or limit. 

Country is a common noun; neuter gender; third person; sin- 
gular number; objective case; object of the preposition in. 
Prepositions govern the objective case. § 230. 

But is a coordinate conjunction, and connects the two clauses of 
the sentence. Conjunctions connect words or sentences. § 235. 

True is a qualifying adjective; positive degree, — true, truer, 
truest; and belongs to politeness. Adjectives belong to the 
nouns or pronouns which they qualify or limit. 

Politeness is a common noun; neuter gender; third person; sin- 
gular number; nominative case; subject of the verb is> The 
subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 



i 



132 SYNTAX. 

Is is an irregular verb,— -am or be, was, been; intransitive; indica- 
tive mode; present tense; third person, singular; and agrees 
with its subject politeness. A verb must agree with its subject 
in number and person. 

Everywhere is an adverb of place, and modifies same. Adverbs 
modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. § 220. 

The is a definite article, and modifies the adjective same. § 197. 

Same is a limiting adjective, and belongs to politeness. Adjectives 
belong to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify or limit. 

172. " O grant an honest fame or grant me none." — 
Pope. 

O is an interjection. Interjections have no grammatical relation 
to the other words of a sentence. § 242. 

An is an indefinite article, and belongs to fame. Adjectives be- 
long to the nouns or pronouns which they qualify or limit. 

Me is a personal pronoun ; masculine gender ; first person ; singu- 
lar number; objective case, — nom. 7", poss. my or mine, obj. 
me, ind. me or /; indirect object of the verb grant. Transi- 
tive verbs govern the objective case. Transitive verbs of asking, 
teaching, giving, and some others, are often employed to gov- 
ern two objects, one direct and the other indirect. §§ 208, 210. 



MODEL OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

173. " Sweet flowers are slow, but weeds make haste.' ' 

-Shaksjpeare. 

The adjective sweet qualifies the noun flowers. 

The noun flowers is the subject of the verb are. 

The verb are agrees with its subject flowers. 

The predicate adjective slow modifies the noun flowers. See § 189. 

The conjunction but connects the two coordinate clauses of the 

sentence. 
The noun weeds is the subject of the verb make. 
The verb make agrees with its subject weeds. 
The noun haste is the object of the transitive verb make. 






SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 



133 



REVIEW. 

What is the first direction for the complete analysis of a sentence? 
Give the directions for analyzing a simple sentence ; — a complex sen- 
tence ; — a compound sentence. 

How may the analysis of a sentence be illustrated ? In the construc- 
tion of diagrams, give the directions for the grammatical subject and 
the grammatical predicate; — for modifying adjuncts; — for words, 
phrases, and clauses grammatically connected ; — used independently ; — 
for the direct object ; — the omission of a word ; — words connected by coor- 
dinate conjunctions. 

Define Parsing. Give the order of parsing for each part of speech. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 



NOMINATIVES. 

174. The subject of a finite verb must be in the nom- 
inative case : 

"The moon shines with borrowed light." 

Parse the subject nominatives of the following sentences. See Models, 
§171. 

u Revenge dwells in little minds." — Blair. 
44 We should always prefer duty to pleasure." 

Take your readers and point out five or more subject nominatives and 
the verbs agreeing with them. 

Form sentences and point out the subject nominatives and the verbs 
that agree with them. 

APPOSITION, 

175. A noun or pronoun used to identify or explain 
another noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the 
same case : 

" Webster, the lexicographer, wrote an English Grammar." 
A noun may be put in apposition with a phrase or a sentence : 

" He permitted me to make free use of his valuable library ; a 
kindness which I shall remember with gratitude." 

In the reciprocal phrases one another and each other, a word 
in the singular is made to represent one of the component parts 
of a plural: 

44 Friends confide in each other." "They stood looking at one 
another" In these sentences, each is in apposition with friends, 
and other is governed by in; one is in apposition with they, and 
another is governed by at. 

134 



PUNCTUATION — POSSESSIVES. 135 

Parse the word frogs tit the following sentence: 

" Those green-coated musicians, the frogs, make holiday in 
the neighboring marshes. 11 — Longfellow. 

Take your readers and point out nouns in apposition. 

Form sentences containing five or more nouns in apposition; — contain- 
ing a word in the singular in apposition with a plural. 

Punctuation. 

176. When a word and a phrase, or two or more 
phrases, are in apposition, they should generally be sepa- 
rated from each other and from the rest of the sentence 
by commas : 

" Chaucer, t/te father of English poetry, passed a great part of his life 
at the court of Edward III." 

But when two words in apposition, with or without 

adjuncts, are closely united so as to form a single phrase, 

they should not be separated by a comma : 

"The poet Longfellow has written beautiful prose." "What we 
learn in our youth grows up with us, and in time becomes a 
part of the mind itself" 

When words in the predicate are put in apposition with 
words in the subject, no comma is required : 
11 He returned & friend who came a foe." — Pope. 
Write sentences illustrating the above rules for punctuation. 

POSSESSIVES. 

177. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is 
governed by the noun which it defines or limits. 

" Cicero's orations " ; M The nigldingale's song is sweet." 

When the thing possessed belongs to two or more possessors 
jointly, the sign is annexed to the last only of the possessive 
.nouns: 

" Mason and Dixon's line " ; "Allen and Greenough's Grammar." 



136 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

But when different things of the same name belong to two or 
more possessors separately, the sign should be annexed to each 

possessive: 

Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries; that is, Webster's Dic- 
tionaries and Worcester's Dictionaries. John's, Henry's, and 
William's books. 

Two or more words closely united and forming essentially one 
compound name have the sign of possession annexed to the last 
only: 

" George Washington's administration." " George t7ie Fourth's reign." 
" The Du7ce of Wellington's palace." 

When two or more possessive nouns in apposition define or 
limit a noun expressed, the sign is annexed to the last only: 

Newton the philosopher 's discoveries. 

Parse the word sorrow's in the following sentence : 

" Patience is sorrow's salve. " — Churchill. 

Take your readers and point out Jive or more possessives. 

Form sentences containing five or more possessives, 

EXERCISE. 

1. "Ferdinand and Isabella's reign." 

2. "Johnson was laid in Westminster Abbey among the emi- 
nent men of whom he had been the historian, Coivleij and 
Denham, Dryden and Congreve, Gay, Prior, and Addison." — 
Macaulay. 

3. " I've heard 

Dame Mercy Warren s rousing word."" — Whittier. 

4. "All powerful souls have kindred with each other." — 
Coleridge. 

5. "Rasselas was written in the evenings of one week, to 
defray the expenses of Johnson's mother's funer 'al."— Cunning- 
ham. 

Parse the italicized words in the foregoing examples. 
Give the syntax of the words that are in fall-face type. 
Analyze the last two examples. 

Open your readers and select nominatives ; — nouns or pronouns in 
apposition ;^— possessives ; — and give the syntax of each. 



COMPOSITION. 16 i 

Write sentences containing nominatives ; — nouns or pronouns in appo- 
sition; — ordinary possessives; — possessives denoting that the thing pos- 
sessed belongs to two or more possessors jointly ; — containing two or more 
words forming essentially one compound noun in the possessive. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XXI. 

CHANGING POETRY TO PROSE. 

Poetry may be changed to prose by transposing the words 
and arranging them in their natural order, using, as far as 
practicable, the words of the original. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

" Tired Nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep ! 
He, like the world, his ready visit pays 
Where Fortune smiles." — Young. 

Changed: Balmy sleep, the sweet restorer of tired Nature, pays 
his ready visit, like the world, where Fortune smiles. 

" Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, 
Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap, 
Each in his narrow bed forever laid, 
The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep." — Gray. 

Changed : The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep beneath those 
rugged elms, beneath that j'ew-tree's shade, where the turf 
heaves in many a mouldering heap ; each laid forever in his 
narrow bed. 

Change the following passage to prose: 

" Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, 
With blossom'd furze unprofitably gay, 
There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule, 
The village master taught his little school; 
A man severe he was, and stern to view, — 
I knew him well, and every truant knew." — Goldsmith. 

[Add similar exercises.] 



138 RULES OF SYNTAX. 






INDEPENDENT CASE. 

178. When a noun or pronoun is used absolutely, 
having no dependence on any other word, it is in the 
independent case : 

" The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, but in ourselves. 

This rule applies, — 

(1) When a direct address is made, and the noun or pronoun 
has no dependence on the rest of the sentence: 

" O mighty Ccesar, dost thou lie so low ? " — Shakspeare. 

This is the case independent by address. 

(2) When a noun or pronoun is joined with a participle, 
having no dependence on any other word: 

"Honor being lost, all is lost." 

This is the case independent with a participle. 

(3) When a noun is used to introduce the subject of remark, 
and then left independent of the rest of the sentence: 

"The stately homes of England, 
How beautiful they stand! " — Mrs. Hemans. 

This is the case independent by pleonasm. 

(4) When a noun or pronoun is used to express an exclama- 
tion and has no dependence on any other word: 

" Oh, the miseries of war ! " 

This is the case independent by exclamation. 

(5) When a noun is used abstractly after an infinitive or par- 
ticiple: 

" To be the slave of passion is of all slavery the most wretched." 

Parse the word Plato in the following sentence: 

"It must be so — Plato, thou reasonest well!" — Addison. 

Take your readers and point out examples of nouns in the independent 
case. 

Form sentences containing nouns in the independent case by address; — 
with a participle; — by pleonasm; — by exclamation. 



PRONOUNS. 139 

Punctuation. 

179. The independent case with its adjuncts should be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas : 

"The wind being favorable, we set sail." 

"Rejoice, you men of Angiers, ring your bells." — Shakspeare. 

Write sentences illustrating the above rule for punctuation, 

PRONOUNS. 

180. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in 
gender, number, and person : 

" The man who loves his country will lend his aid for its defense." 

181. The neuter pronoun it has a variety of peculiar 
uses, most of which are introductory. It is employed, — 

(1) To represent a noun or pronoun in the plural number: 
u It is the dews and sJwwers that make the grass grow." 

(2) To represent a noun or pronoun in the masculine or femi- 
nine gender: 

"It was a son of the judge." a It is the queen" 

(3) To represent a noun or pronoun in the first or second 
person: 

"It is/." "Is it you?" 

(4) As a preparatory subject, anticipating a substantive 
clause or an infinitive phrase, which it represents: 

"It is necessary that ice slwuld submit to be governed." " In Rome, it 
was deemed a crime to despair of the Republic." 

(5) It is also used in a vague and indefinite sense: 

" It rains." "It is cold." " During this time they had lorded it 
over the land with absolute sway."— Prescott. " Come and trip 
it as you go." — Milton. 

Parse the word they in the following sentence: 

" People seldom improve when they have no model but them- 
selves to copy after.'' — Goldsmith, 



140 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Take your readers and point out personal and relative pronouns and 
their antecedents. 

Form sentences containing personal and relative pronouns, and name 
their antecedents. 

Form sentences containing examples of the pronoun it used to represent 
a noun or pronoun in the plural number; — in the masculine or feminine 
gender; — in the first or second person ; — used as a preparatory subject; — 
used in a vague and indefinite sense. 

EXERCISE. 

1. "Lend me your song, ye nightingales." — Thomson. 

2. "To be a good traveler argues one no ordinary philoso- 
pher. 1 ' — Tuckennan. 

3. "It is they." 

4. "William the Norman having conquered England, the 
French language was introduced into the court. 1 ' 

5. " When a strong brain is weighed with a true heart, it 
seems to me like balancing a bubble against a wedge of gold." — 
Holmes. 

6. "0 Time and Change! with hair as gray 

As was my sire's that winter day." — Whittier. 

7. " My banks, they are furnished with bees." — Shenstone. 

8. "It is a strange thing how little in general people know 
about the sky." — Raskin. 

9. " It is not he that searches for praise who finds it." 

Parse the italicized words in the foregoing examples. See § 170. 

Give the syntax of the words that are in full face type. See § 173. 

Analyze the last two examples. 

Take your readers and select nouns or pronouns used independently . 
Select five or more personal pronouns and five or more relative pronouns, 
and give the syntax of each. 

Write sentences containing a noun or pronoun in the case independent 
b'i address ;■ — with a participle ; — by pleonasm; — by ellipsis ; — by exclama- 
tion ; — containing examples of it used to represent a word inthe plural; — 
a word in the masculine or feminine gender; — a word in the first or second 
person ; — used as a preparatory subject; — used in a vague, indefinite sense. 



COMPOSITION PRONOUNS. 141 

COMPOSITION EXERCISE XXII. 

PICTURES, 

Pictures may be employed to furnish interesting and sug- 
gestive topics for composition. 

Let the subject assigned be A Picture of different kinds of Vessels on the 
Ocean, with Lightlwuse, Sea-birds, etc. 

Topics suggested. — Extent of the ocean; why salt; tides; 
inhabitants; shells; appearance in storm and calm; usefulness; 
different kinds of ships; construction; rigging; steamers; navi- 
gation; mariner's compass; sea-birds; lighthouses. 

Criticisms and corrections. 
[Add similar exercises from other pictures, omitting the suggestive topics.] 

182. When two or more singular antecedents, denoting 
different objects, are taken jointly, the pronoun must be 
in the plural number : 

Virtue and good breeding render their possessor truly amiable." 

When the antecedents are of different persons, the pronouns 
should be of the first person if either of the antecedents is of the 
first person; but if neither of the antecedents is of the first per- 
son, the pronoun should be of the second person: 

"James and I have finished our lessons." "You >and Henry 
shared it between you." 

Form a sentence containing a plural pronoun relating to two or more 
singular antecedents; — a sentence containing a pronoun that has two or 
more antecedents of different persons. 

183. When two or more singular antecedents are so 
connected that the pronoun represents each of them sepa- 
rately, or one of them exclusively, the pronoun must be 
in the singular number: 

"Every good act and every good purpose will receive its reward." 
"The butler, and not the baker, was restored to his office." 

184. When a singular and a plural antecedent are 



142 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

connected by or or nor, the pronoun representing them 
should be in the plural number: 

Neither lie nor his friends have interested themselves in this sub- 
ject. 

Form a sentence containing a pronoun in the singular representing two 
or more singular antecedents ; — containing a pronoun that represents a 
singular and a plural antecedent connected by or. 

185. When pronouns, or nouns and pronouns, of dif- 
ferent persons, are joined in the same construction, the 
third' person should precede the first, and the second 
should precede both the first and the third : 

" My brother and / were detained.'* " You and Charles and / were 
engaged in the same transaction." 

Form a sentence containing pronouns, or nouns and pronouns, of differ- 
ent persons, joined in the same construction. 

186. The relative pronoun should be so placed that it 
will relate to the nearest prec ding noun or pronoun, or 
to some word that shows by its connection or importance 
what relation is intended. 

Erroneous Construction. — " He is unworthy of the confidence of a 
fellow-being that disregards the laws of his Maker." Corrected : 
" He that disregards the laws of his Maker is unworthy of the 
confidence of a fellow-being." 

Form sentences illustrating the correct and the incorrect position of the 
relative. 



Uses of WHO, WHICH, and THAT. 

187. When the relative clause is used eoordinately, ivho or 
which should be employed: 

" Here comes a native, who [and he] may be able to tell us the 
name of this river." " These words were received with a shout 
of joy, which was heard in the street below." — Macaulay. 



PRONOUNS. 143 

When the relative clause is used to limit or restrict the ante- 
cedent, good writers sometimes employ that, and sometimes who 
or which. That form should be employed which contributes 
most to the euphony of the sentence : 

" Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown." — SJiakspeare. 
44 He icho plants an oak, looks forward to future ages, and plants 
for posterity." — I ning. 

188. The relative that should be employed in preference to 
who or which, — 

(1) When its use prevents an unpleasant repetition of either 
of these pronouns : 

11 Who that is not blinded by prejudice will believe this report?" 

(2) When persons form a part only of the antecedent : 
11 The men and supplies tJtat we sent for." 

(3) When its use prevents ambiguity : 

44 1 met the guide that conducted us over the mountain." The use 
of who in this sentence would render it ambiguous, and it might 
be understood to be equivalent to 4k I met the guide and he con- 
ducted us over the mountain." 

Form sentences containing relatives in clauses used codrdinately ; — 
containing examples of that used to prevent an unpleasant repetition of 
who or which; — used when persons form a part only of the antecedent; — 
used to prevent ambiguity. 

EXERCISE. 

1. " Knowledge and timber should not be much used until 
they are seasoned." — Holmes. 

2. 44 Neither the officer nor his soldiers regained their camp 
that night." 

3. " You and your brother and I have done all we could to 
reclaim him." 

4. " Ulysses spake of the men and the cities that he had seen." 

5. " Every state, and almost every county, of New England, 
has its Roaring Brook." — Longfellow. 

6. " It is not he who sings loudest and jotes most that has the 
lightest heart." — Irving. 

Parse the italicized words in the foregoing examples. See § 170. 
Give the syntax of the words that are in full-face type. See § 173. 
Analyze the last two examples. 



14:4 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Write sentences containing relatives in clauses used coordinatehj ; — 
containing examples of that used to prevent an unpleasant repetition of 
who or which; — used ivhen persons form a part only of the antecedent; — 
used to prevent ambiguity. 

Write sentences containing a plural pronoun used to represent two or 
more singular antecedents; — a pronoun having two or more antecedents of 
different persons-, — a pronoun in the singular representing two or more 
singular antecedents; — a pronoun representing a singular and a plural 
antecedent connected by or or nor; — pronouns, or nouns and pronouns, of 
different persons joined in the same construction. 

Write an example in two forms illustrating the danger of ambiguity 
from a wrong position of the relative. 



REVIEW. 

Give the rule for nominatives. Examples. Rule for apposition. 
Examples. Explain the reciprocal phrases one another and each otlier. 

Rule for possessives. Examples. Sign of possession when the thing 
possessed belongs to two or more possessors jointly. Examples. Sign of 
possession when two or more words form one compound name. Ex- 
amples. 

Rule for independent case. Five classes of nouns and pronouns in 
the independent case. Examples of each. 

Rule for agreement of pronouns. Examples. Peculiar uses of it. 
Examples of each. When should who or which be employed ? When 
should the pronoun used be governed by the euphony of the sentence ? 
When should the relative that be employed ? Examples. 

Number of a pronoun representing two or more singular antecedents, 
taken jointly. Examples. Agreement of a pronoun with two or more 
antecedents of different persons. Examples. Agreement of a pronoun 
with two or more singular antecedents taken separately, or with one 
exclusively. Examples. Agreement of a pronoun with a singular and a 
plural antecedent, connected by or or nor. Example. Person of a pro- 
noun representing antecedents of different persons. Examples. Rule 
respecting the position of relatives. Example. 

Rules for commas when words or phrases are in apposition. Rule 
when the independent case occurs. 



COMPOSITION — AD J ECTI VES. 145 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XXIII. 

CONVERSATION. 

Let an interesting narrative, or description, or biographical sketch, 
be read in the class and made the basis of a conversation. 

Criticisms and suggestions. 



ADJECTIVES. 

189. Adjectives belong to the nouns or pronouns 
which they qualify or limit : 

" Good books " ; " These hours. ,, 

When an adjective is joined to a noun or pronoun by means 
of a verb, it is called a predicate adjective: 

"The day grows warm." 

An adjective is sometimes used to qualify a phrase or a sen- 
tence : 

" To be blind is calamitous!" " That he should have refused the 
appointment is extraordinary." 

An adjective is often used to qualify a noun and another 
adjective, taken as one compound term: 

"A venerable old man " ; u The best upland cotton.' ' 

190. When an adjective is employed to express a comparison 
between two objects only, or between objects of two different 
classes, it should generally take the form of the comparative: 

"Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist." — Pope. 
" George is taller than John." 

Sometimes, however, the superlative form is employed when only two 
objects are compared:* 

" The largest boat of the two was cut loose." — Cooper. " I think 
the English one rather the best of the two." — Lockhardt. 



* We often wish to express the highest or lowest degree of quality in the objects 
considered, whether two or more. In such cases the strength of the expression is often 
weakened by employing the comparative adjective, even when we are considering but 
two objects. 
7 



liG KULES OF SYNTAX. 

When a comparison is expressed between more than two 
objects of the same class, the superlative degree is employed: 

" This was the noblest Roman of them all." " The last clay of the 
year." 

Form sentences illustrating the correct use of comparative and super- 
lative degrees. 

191. In the use of comparative and superlative adjectives, 
care should be taken not to include a noun or pronoun in a class 
to which it does not belong, nor exclude it from a class to which 
it does belong. 

Thus it would be improper to say " Socrates was wiser than any 
Athenian," because Socrates was himself an Athenian. The 
correct form would be, " Socrates was wiser than any other 
Athenian," or " Socrates was the wisest of the Athenians." The 
following sentence is also erroneous : — " The vice of covetous- 
ness, of all others, enters deepest into the soul." Covetousness is 
not one of the other vices. 
Form sentences illustrating the inclusive and exclusive use of com- 
parative and superlative adjectives. 

192. Double comparatives and superlatives, as worser, most 
straightest, should be carefully avoided. 

Form sentences illustrating the caution respecting double comparatives 
and superlatives. 

The word lesser is often used by good writers : 

"Lesser Asia." " Of lesser note." — Goldsmith. "With thousand 
lesser lights." — Milton. 

193. An adjective is sometimes employed to qualify a noun 
or pronoun, and also to modify the sense of a verb: 

" The door was painted green." The adjective green here qualifies 
the noun door, and modifies the verb was painted. Adjectives of 
this class may be called adverbial adjectives. 

Form sentences containing adverbial adjectives. 

194. An adjective is sometimes used absolutely, having no 
direct reference tp any noun or pronoun: 

" The desire of being happy reigns in all hearts." " To be wise and 
good is to be great and noble." 



ADJECTIVES — ARTICLES, 147 

195. Adjectives should be so placed as to show clearly 

which nouns they are intended to qualify. 

Thus, instead of saying "This disconsolate soldier's widow," w T e 
should say " This soldier's disconsolate widow." 

Form sentences illustrating the correct and incorrect position of ad- 
jectives. 

196. First three, last three, etc. ; or three first, three last, 

etc. Both of these forms are sanctioned by good usage, but the 
form first three, last three, etc., is more frequently employed 
than the other, and is generally to be preferred: 

"The first eighteen years." — iV. A. Review. u The history of the 
world for the last fifty years:"— E. Everett. " During the last 
seven or eight years" — BrougJtam. " For the first ten minutes." — 
Cooper. 

The expressions three first, two last, etc., are also fully sanc- 
tioned by good usage: 

"My two last letters." — Addison. "At the tico last schools." — John- 
son. " The two first years." — Bancroft. " The two first days," — 
Irving. " The four first centuries." — Prescott. 

ARTICLES. 

197. The article a or an is used with nouns in the sin- 
gular number : 

A book ; an orange ; a crowd. 

The article the is used with nouns in either number. 
Tlie house ; tlie trees ; the Greeks. 

198. Articles are sometimes used to modify the sense of 
other adjectives: 

"A few days " ; "A thousand years " ; "So much the stronger proved 
he." 

Form sentences containing articles used to modify the* sense of other 
adjectives. 

The article the is sometimes used to modify the sense of an 
adverb : 

" Tlie longer you delay, tlie more your difficulties will increase." 



148 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

199. When two or more adjectives standing in connection 
are used to describe different objects of the same name, the 
article should generally be placed before each of them : 

"A reel and a white flag " ; that is, two flags, one red and the other 
white. 

But when no ambiguity is likely to arise from the omission 
of the article, its repetition is not essential: 

Thus we may say, with equal propriety, " The fourteenth and the 
fifteenth century," or " The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries." 

200. When two or more adjectives are used to describe the 
same object, the article should generally be employed before the 
first only: 

"A red and white flag " ; that is, one flag, both red and white. 
Form sentences illustrating the correct use of the article when two or 
more adjectives describe different objects of the same name; — ivhen they 
describe the same object, 

201. A noun taken in its widest and most general sense is 
commonly used without an article: 

"Man is mortal," "Vice is odious." "Iron is the most useful 
of the metals." 

EXERCISE. 

1. "A good book is the best of friends."" — Tapper. 

2. " Man is made great or little by his own will." 

3. " We make ourselves more injuries than are offered to us." 
— Feltham. 

4. " These court the beam of milder climes.'" — Thomson. 

5. "The Alhambra, like a slighted beauty, sat in mournful 
desolation among her neglected gardens." — Irving. 

Parse the italicized words in the foregoing examples. 

Give the syntax of the ivords that are in fall face type. 

Analyze the last two examples. 

Open your readers and select qualifying adjectives; — limiting ad- 
jectives, including articles, — give the syntax of each. 

Write sentences containing qualifying adjectives; — limiting adjectives, 
including definite and, indefinite articles;— adjectives expressing a com- 
parison between two objects only ; — between more than two objects. 



COMPOSITION — VERBS. 149 

Write sentences illustrating the inclusive and exclusive use of com- 
parative and superlative adjectives; — containing adverbial adjectives; — 
sentences illustrating the correct use of the article when two or more ad- 
jectives describe different objects of the same name; — when they describe 
the same object. 



REVIEW. 

Give the general rule for adjectives. General directions respecting 
the use of comparatives and superlatives. Examples. Rule respecting 
the inclusive and exclusive use of comparatives and superlatives. Ex- 
amples. Double comparatives and superlatives. Examples. Adverbial 
adjectives. Examples. Rule respecting the position of adjectives. 
Illustrate. The use of numerals before or after the adjectives first and 
last. 

When is the article a or an used? When the article the? Use of the 
article when two or more adjectives describe different objects of the 
same name. Examples. When they describe the same object. Exam- 
ples. Rule when a noun is taken in its widest sense. Examples. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XXIV. 

CONVERSATION. 

If the class, or any portion of it, can visit a menagerie, a museum, a 
ship, a fair, a brickyard, a mill, or any other object of interest, this may 
be taken as a subject for a conversational exercise. 

A Forest; Ornamental Trees; Fruit Trees; A Landscape; A Farm; 
Foreign Fruits; The Town or City in which the Pupils Live; Trades 
and Professions; Excursions; Picnics; Hunting; Fishing; Gathering 
Wild Flowers; The Changes which Manners and Customs undergo, are 
examples of fruitful and interesting subjects. 



VERBS — AGREEMENT. 

202. A verb must agree with its subject in number and 
person : 

" I hear " ; " You see " ; " Thou seest " ; " He reads." 



150 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

203. When a collective noun conveys the idea of individuals 
taken separately, the verb should be plural: 

" The assembly were divided in their opinions." 

When the idea is that of one collective whole, the verb should 
be singular. 

" The nation is powerful." 

When this distinction is not clearly made, usage inclines to 
the plural. 

Form sentences containing both singular and plural verbs that agree 
with collective nouns. 

204. When two or more singular subjects denoting different 
persons or things are connected by and, expressed or understood, 
the verb should be in the plural number: 

" Mendelssohn and Mozart were eminent composers." " The air, 
the earth, the water, teem with delighted existence." 

205. When two or more singular subjects denoting the same 
person or thing are connected by and, the verb agreeing with 
them must be singular: 

"This renowned patriot and statesman has retired to private life." 

Form sentences containing verbs that agree with two or more singular 
subjects connected by and. 

206. When two or more singular subjects are so connected 
that the verb agrees with each subject separately, or with one of 
them exclusively, the verb must be in the singular number: 

" Duty, and not interest, was his constant rule of action." " Pom- 
pey, as well as Coesar, was a distinguished general." 
" Every tongue and every eye 
Does homage to the passer by." 

207. When a singular and a plural subject are connected by 
or or nor, the verb should be plural, and the plural subject 
should generally be placed next to the verb: 

11 Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him." 

Form sentences containing verbs that agree with each of two or more 
singular subjects, or with one of them exclusively ; — with a singular and 
a plural subject connected by or or nor. 



VERBS — COMPOSITION. 151 



EXERCISE. 

1. "Every nation has its popular songs." — Longfellow. 

2. " Mankind have a great aversion to intellectual labor." — 
Johnson. 

3. " Neither the telegraph nor railroads were known when 
Boston was settled. " 

4. " Time and tide wait for no man." 

5. "My poverty but not my will consents." — Shakspeare. 

6. " The Natural Bridge of Virginia is one of the most cele- 
brated natural arches in the world." 

Parse the italicized words in the foregoing examples. 
Give the syntax of the words that are in full-face type. 
Analyze the last two examples. 

Write sentences containing both singular and plural verbs that agree 
with collective nouns; — containing verbs that agree ivith two or more 
singular subjects connected by and; — that agree with each of two or more 
singular subjects, or with one of them exclusively ; — with a singular and a 
plural subject connected by or or nor. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XXV. 

i 

PARAPHRASING. 

Paraphrasing is expressing the meaning of a passage 
in different words. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PARAPHRASING. 

1. Study the passage till you are sure you understand its exact 
meaning. 

2. Be careful to express as nearly as possible the exact mean- 
ing of the original passage. 

3. Let the words be changed as far as practicable; but when no 
equivalents can be found, the words of the original may be re- 
tained. 

4. The form and construction of the sentences may be changed 
at pleasure. 

5. In paraphrasing poetry, the construction should be changed 
to the natural prose order and arrangement of words. 



152 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Examples. 

"Anguish of mind has driven thousands to suicide; anguish of body, 
none. This proves that the health of the mind is of far more consequence 
to our happiness than the health of the body, although both are deserv- 
ing of much more attention than either of them receives." — Colton. 

PARAPHRASE. 

Mental agony has urged large numbers onward to self-destruction ; 
not so with bodily suffering. Hence we see that our enjoyment 
of life depends much more upon a healthy condition of the mind 
than upon a healthy condition of the body, though we do not 
give to either of them the care which it deserves. 

" This mournful truth is eveiwwhere confess'd, 
Slow rises worth by poverty depressed." — Johnson. 

PARAPHRASE. 

This sad fact is admitted by all, that merit, held down by incli 
gence, does not soon become known and acknowledged. 

Paraphrase the following passages: 

"Be humble and gentle in your conversation; of few words, 
I charge you, but always pertinent when you speak; hearing 
out before you attempt to answer, and then speaking as if you 
would persuade, not impose." — William Penn. * 

"Verse sweetens toil, however rude the sound; 
All at her work the village maiden sings, 
Nor, while she turns the giddy wheel around, 
Eevolves the sad vicissitudes of things." — Richard Gifford. 

[This is a highly useful exercise, and should be continued through several lessons.] 



VERBS — GOVERNMENT. 

208. Transitive verbs govern the objective case : 
" I saw Mm" " Columbus discovered America." 

209. An intransitive verb may be used to govern an objective, 
when the verb and the noun depending upon it are of kindred significa- 
tion: 

" To live a blameless life " ; " To run a race." This is called the 
cognate objective. 



SAME CASE — INFINITIVES. 153 

210. Transitive verbs of asking, teaching, giving, and some 
others, are often employed to govern two objects, one direct and 
the other indirect: 

" He taught us Arithmetic." " I thrice presented him a kingly 
crown." In the sentence " He taught us Arithmetic," Arith- 
metic is the direct object of the verb, and us the indirect object. 

When verbs of this class take the passive form, they are often 
employed to govern an objective: 

" He had been infused shelter." — Irving. " They were denied the 
indulgence. " — Macaulay. 

Fo*vn sentences containing double objectives after transitive verbs;*— 
containing single objectives after passive verbs, 

SAME CASE. 

211. A noun or pronoun used as the subjective or 
objective complement of a verb, must agree in case with 
the noun or pronoun to which it relates : 

"Society is the true sphere of human virtue." u They wished him 
to be their king." u IIe soon became the leader of his party." 
"He was chosen librarian" "Homer has been styled the prince 
of poets." " The people elected Cicero consul." 

When the nominative after a verb forms a part of the predicate, it is 
called the predicate nominative. 

Form sentences containing nouns and pronouns used as the subjective 
and objective complements of verbs. 

INFINITIVES. 

212. A verb in the infinitive is generally governed by 

another word: 

"Strive to improve." "I am in haste to return." "The ship was 
ready to sail." u The shipmen were about to flee." 

The infinitive is sometimes used absolutely, having no depend- 
ence on any other word: 

" To confess the truth, I was in fault." 



154 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

213. A verb in the infinitive usually relates to some noun 
or pronoun. Thus, in the sentence "He desires to improve," 
the verb to improve relates to he, and is governed by desires. 

214. When the infinitive follows the active voice of the 
verbs bid, dare, feel, see, let, make, need, hear, and have, the sign 
to is generally omitted: 

" I felt my strength return." 

Take your readers and point out infinitives and their government and 
relation. 

Form sentences containing infinitives and point out their government 
and relation;— a sentence containing an infinitive absolute; — sentences 
containing infinitives used without the sign to. 

Punctuation. 

215. The infinitive absolute with its adjuncts should 
be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas : 

" To be candid with you, I think you are mistaken." 
Write sentences illustrating the above rule for punctuation. 

PARTICIPLES. 

216. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns : 

u He stood leaning on his spade and gazing at the brightness in the 
west." 

217. A participial noun is often used to perform the double 
office of a noun and a verb: 

" I could not avoid expressing my concern for the stranger." As 
a noun, expressing is governed by avoid; as a verb, it governs 
concern. 

218. A participle is sometimes used absolutely, having no 
direct reference to any noun or pronoun: 

"Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." "This 
conduct, viewing it in the most favorable light, reflects discredit 
on his character." 

Form sentences containing participles and point out their relation;— 
containing participial nouns that perform a double office; — containing 
participles used absolutely. 



PARTICIPLES — PUNCTUATION. 155 

Punctuation. 

219, The participle absolute with its adjuncts should 
be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas : 

" These nine in buckram that I told thee of, 
Their points being broken, began to give me ground." 

— Shakspeare. 
Write sentences illustrating the above rule for punctuation, 

EXERCISE. 

1. "Next to being a great poet is the power of understanding 
one.' 1 — Longfellow. 

2. "Let ail you tell be truth. 1 ' — Horace Mann. 

3. " A well cultivated mind is, so to speak, made up of all the 
minds of preceding ages. 1 ' 

4. " Words are but pictures of our thoughts." — Dryden. 

5. "They sleep the sleep that knows no waking." — Scott. 

6. "The kind, impartial care 

Of Nature, naught disdains." — Thomson. 

7. " Talents give a man a superiority far more agreeable than 
that which proceeds from riches, birth, or employments, which 
are external." — Rollin. 

Parse the italicized words in the foregoing examples. 

Give the syntax of the words that are in full-face type. 

Analyze the last two examples. 

Open your readers and select transitive verbs in the active voice;— 
verbs in the infinitive; — participles. Give the syntax of each. 

Write sentences containing transitive verbs in the active voice; — double 
objectives after verbs of asking, teaching, etc. ; — containing single objectives 
after passive verbs; — sentences containing nominatives and objectives after 
passive verbs; — containing infinitives; — infinitives used absolutely; — 
infinitives used without the sign to; — containing porticiples ; — participial 
nouns that are used to perform a double office; — participles used abso- 
lutely. 

REVIEW. 

Rule for the agreement of verbs. Examples. Agreement of verbs 
with collective nouns. Examples. With two or more singular subjects 



156 SYNTAX — COMPOSITION — ADVERBS. 



denoting different persons or things and connected by and. Examples. 
With two or more singular subjects when the verb agrees with each 
separately or with one exclusively. Examples. With a singular and a 
plural subject connected by or or nor. Examples. 

Eule respecting transitive verbs. Examples. Transitive verbs of 
asking, teaching, etc. Examples. Rule respecting the same case. Ex- 
amples. General rule for infinitives. Examples. Infinitives used abso- 
lutely. Relation of infinitives. Illustrate. Infinitives following the 
active voice of bid, dare, feel, etc. Examples. 

Rule for participles. Examples. Double office of a participial noun. 
Examples. Participles used absolutely. Examples. 

Rule for commas in sentences containing the infinitive absolute. In 
sentences containing the participle absolute. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XXVI. 

ORAL. 

Let The News of the Day be assigned as the subject for a lesson, and 
let the pupils prepare themselves carefully with items of fresh intelli- 
gence for the exercise. All subjects of a partisan or sectarian character 
should be excluded. 

Let each pupil present orally a single item, making his statement 
clear and full. Let special care be taken to employ the best words and 
to arrange them in the best manner. 

In estimating the value of each pupil's effort, credit should be given 
for the importance and interest of the items given, and for the language 
employed in expressing them. 

[Add one or more exercises of the same kind.] 



ADVERBS. 

220. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, arid other 
adverbs : 

" Men frequently contend for trifles. 1 ' u The distance is too great" 
" It was very thankfully received.'' 
Form sentences containing adverbs that modify verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs. 



ADVERBS. 157 

An adverb is sometimes used to modify a phrase: 

" He was doubly in fault" " The final debate on the resolution 
was postponed for nearly a month." — Wirt. 
An adverb is sometimes used to modify a preposition: 
" He was wounded just below the ear." 

221. The responsive adverbs yes and no are used independ- 
ently as substitutes for responsive sentences: 

"Will you go?" "No."="I will not go." "Has the hour ar- 
rived ? " " Yes "=" It has arrived." 

222. The expletive adverb there is often used to form an 
easy and agreeable introduction to a sentence: 

" There was not a cloud to be seen." " There is an hour of peaceful 

rest." 

223. A negation is properly expressed by the use of one 
negative only: 

" I will hear no more of it." A repetition of the same negative 
renders the negation more emphatic : " I would never lay down 
my arms ; — never — never — never ."—Pitt. 

Errors. — " I never did believe it nor never will." 

" I never did repent for doing good, 
Nor shall not now." — Shakspeare. 

Two negatives in the same clause are generally equivalent to 
an affirmative, and are sometimes elegantly employed to ex- 
press a positive assertion: 

" Nor did he pass immoved the gentle scene." 
"Nor did they not perceive the evil plight 
In which they were, or the fierce pain not feel." — Milton. 

Form sentences illustrating the correct and incorrect use of double 
negatives. 

224. Two or more words are sometimes used in connection 
as a compound adverb, or adverbial phrase: 

At once ; by far ; in vain ; from thence ; from whence. 
" We will see about this matter by and by." — Irving. 
Form sentences containing compound adverbs. 

225. Adverbs should be placed in that situation which con- 



158 SYNTAX. 

tributes most to the harmony and clearness of the sentence, and 
which accords best with the usage of the language. 

This rule is violated in the sentence "Thoughts are only criminal, 
when they are first chosen and then voluntarily continued. " 
As it stands, the adverb only properly qualifies criminal, whereas 
the author intended to have it qualify that portion of the sen- 
tence which follows the comma. Corrected: "Thoughts are 
criminal only when they are first chosen and then voluntarily 
continued." 

"There are certain miseries in idleness, which the idle can only 
conceive." — Johnson. Corrected : " which the idle only can con- 
ceive." 

Form sentences illustrating the correct and incorrect position of ad- 
verbs, 

226. The infinitive particle to should never be separated 
from the verb by an intervening adverb: 

Erroneous Construction. — " Teach scholars to carefully scrutinize 
the sentiments advanced in all the books they read." Cor- 
rected: "to scrutinize carefully." 

Illustrate the caution respecting the separation of the infinitive particle 
to from the verb, 

EXERCISE. 

1. "How universal is the love of poetry!" — Longfelloiv. 

2. " The poetry of earth is never dead." — Keats. 

3. "Dull sleep instructs, nor sport vain dreams in vain." — 
Young. 

4. "In the philosophy of history the moderns have very far 
surpassed the ancients." — Macanlay. 

Parse the italicized words in the foregoing examples. 

Give the syntax of the words that are in full-face type. 

Analyze the last two examples. 

Take your readers and select adverbs that modify verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs, and give the syntax of each. 

Write sentences containing adverbs that modify verbs; — adjectives; — 
other adverbs. 

Write sentences illustrating the correct and incorrect use of double 
negatives; — containing compound adverbs; — sentences illustrating the cor' 
red and incorrect position of the adverb. 



COMPOSITION. 159 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XXVII. 

ABSTRACTS. 

Pupils will find it an exceedingly profitable exercise to write abstracts 
of pieces selected from their readers. 

Examples. 

EARLY ASSOCIATIONS OF NAPOLEON. 

It is said that at that period of his life when the consequences of his 
infatuated conduct had fully developed themselves in unforeseen re- 
verses, Napoleon, driven to the necessity of defending himself within 
his own kingdom with the shattered remnant of his army, had taken 
up a position at Brienne, the very spot where he had received the rudi- 
ments of his early education, when, unexpectedly, and while he was 
anxiously employed in a practical application of those military princi- 
ples which first exercised the energies of his young mind in the College 
of Brienne, his attention was arrested by the sound of the church clock. 
The pomp of his imperial court, and even the glories of Marengo and of 
Austerlitz, faded for a moment from his regard, and almost from his 
recollection. Fixed for awhile to the spot on which he stood, in motion- 
less attention to the well known sound, he at length gave utterance to 
his feelings, and condemned the tenor of all his subsequent life, by con- 
fessing that the hours then brought back to his recollection were happier 
than any he had experienced throughout the whole course of his tem- 
pestuous career. — Kidcl. 

ABSTRACT. 

When Napoleon, after his reverses, was compelled to defend himself 
with his shattered army in his own kingdom, he took a position at 
Brienne, where he had received his early education. Suddenly, while 
anxiously engaged in applying the military principles which he first 
studied in the College of Brienne, he was startled by the sound of the 
old church clock. For a moment the pomp and glories of his past life 
faded from his mind. Held motionless by the spell of the familiar 
sound, he gave vent to his feelings, which condemned the course of 
his later life, and confessed that the hours brought back to him were 
happier than any he had known in all his tempestuous public career. 



160 COMPOSITION. 

THE GIANT. 

There came a Giant to my door, 

A Giant tierce and strong; 
His step was heavy on the floor, 

His arms were ten yards long. 
He scowled and frowned ; he shook the ground : 

I trembled through and through ; 
At length I looked him in the face 

And cried, " Who cares for you ? " 

The mighty Giant, as I spoke, 

Grew pale and thin and small, 
And through his body, as 'twere smoke, 

I saw the sunshine fall. 
His blood-red eyes turned blue as skies, 

He whispered soft and low. 
" Is this," I cried, with growing pride, — 

" Is this the mighty foe ? " 

He sank before my earnest face, 

He vanished quite away, 
And left no shadow on his place 

Between me and the day. 
Such giants come to strike us dumb ; 

But, weak in every part, 
They melt before the strong man's eyes, 

And fly the true of heart. — Cliarles Mackay. 

ABSTRACT. 

A fierce and mighty Giant came with heavy tread to my door. The 
sight was dreadful, and I quaked with fear; but gathering courage I 
said, "Who cares for you?" 

As I spoke his appearance changed, and he became thin and 
shadowy. His tierce eyes turned mild and gentle and his voice became 
soft and low. Proud of my triumph, I cried, " Is this the mighty foe?" 
— when suddenly he vanished and left no trace behind. 

Such giants often assail us, but yield and disappear when met by a 
strong will and a true heart. 

Let the teacher select an interesting lesson from a reader, and let 
the pupils write an abstract of it, expressing the ideas in sentences of 
their own construction, and in as few words as practicable. 



PREPOSITIONS. 161 

PREPOSITIONS — RELATION. 

227. Prepositions connect words and show the rela- 
tion between them. 

One term of the relation expressed is always the object of the prepo- 
sition ; the other may be a verb, a noun, or an adjective: 

11 He traveled for pleasure:'' " They were destitute of foody " This 
is an age of progress." 

228. Two or more words are sometimes taken together as a 

compound preposition : 

From among, from between, as to, as for, according to, over 

against. 
"From between the arcades the eye glances up to a bit of blue sky 

or a passing cloud." — Irving. 

Form sentences containing prepositions that express the relations of 
objectives to verbs, nouns, and adjectives; — containing compound preposi- 
tions, 

229. Care should be taken to employ such preposi- 
tions as express clearly and precisely the relations in- 
tended. 

Correct Examples. — " He went to New York." " He arrived at 
Liverpool." "He rode into the country." "He resides in 
London." " He walks icith a staff by moonlight." 

Errors. — " The posthumous volumes appeared in considerable 
intervals." — H attain. " It was not evident what deity or what 
form of worship they had substituted to the gods and temples 
of antiquity." — Gibbon. 

Form sentences illustrating the correct and incorrect use of prepositions. 
Form sentences containing the following prepositions : 
In, into, of, at, beneath. 

PREPOSITIONS — GOVERNMENT. 

230. Prepositions govern the objective case : 
" They came to us in the spirit of kindness" 



162 SYNTAX. 

231. The words like and unlike often have the force of 
prepositions and govern the objective case: 

"The son was like his father." 

232. But is sometimes employed as a preposition in the 
sense of except: 

" The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled." — Hemans. 

233. A noun used to denote time, distance, space, weight, 
value, direction, etc., may be used adverbially in the objective 
case without a preposition: 

" He walked a mile" " He left the country ten years ago." " The 
tree was eighty/^ high." The office of the noun in each of 
these examples is the same as that of an ordinary prepositional 
phrase used to modify a verb or an adjective. 

Form sentences containing prepositions and point out their objects; — 
containing nouns used adverbially in the objective case, without preposi- 
tions, 

234. A preposition and its object should be so placed 
as to leave no ambiguity in regard tu the words which the 
preposition is intended to connect. 

Incorrect Construction. — "The message was communicated by an 
agent who had never before discharged any important office of 
trust, in compliance with the instructions of the executive." Cor- 
rected: "The message was communicated, in compliance with 
the instructions of the executive, by an agent who had never 
before discharged any important office of trust." 

Form sentences illustrating the correct and incorrect position of prepo- 
sitions. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

235. Conjunctions connect words or sentences : 

" Idleness and ignorance are the parents of many vices." " Delib- 
erate with caution, but act with decision." — Cotton. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 163 

Form sentences containing conjunctions and point out the parts con- 
nected by them. 

Relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs are also employed to per- 
form the office of connectives. 

Many conjunctive adverbs modify the two verbs embraced in the dif- 
ferent clauses which they connect: 

"When he had delivered his message he departed." "Fame may 
give praise, while \i withholds esteem." 

A conjunctive adverb used to supply the place of a preposition and a 
relative pronoun is called a relative adverb : 

" The shepherd leaves his mossy cottage, where [in which] he dwells 
in peace.*' " The colonies had now reached that stage in their 
growth when the difficult problem of colonial government must 
be solved." 

Form sentences containing relative pronouns and explain their con- 
nective office; — containing conjunctive adverbs and point out the parts 
co)tnected by them. 

236. Two or more words are sometimes used together as a 
compound conjunction or conjimctive phrase: 

But that, and yet, as far, as well as, forasmuch as, etc. " It has 
been observed that happiness, as well as virtue, consists in medi- 
ocrity." — Johnson. 
Form sentences containing compound conjunctions. 

CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS. 

237. Some connectives are composed of two or more corre- 
sponding conjunctions, or of conjunctions used in correspondence 
with adverbs or adjectives. The following list embraces most 
of this class of connectives: 

Both — and: 

" It is the work of a mind fitted both for minute researches and for 
long speculations." — Macaulay. 

Though, although — yet, still, nevertheless: 

%k Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull." " Though a 
thousand rivers discharge themselves into the ocean, still it is 
never full." 



164 SYNTAX. 

Whether — or: 

"Whether it were I or they." 

Either — or: 

" No leave ask'st thou of either wind or tide." 

Neither — nor: 

"Neither act nor promise hastily." 

As — as, so: 

" She is <7$ amiable as her sister." "^4s he excels in virtue, so he 
rises in estimation.' 1 

So — as: 

" No riches make one so happy as sl clear conscience." " Speak 
so as to be understood." 

So — that, expressing a consequence: 

" She speaks so low that no one can hear what she is saying." 

Not onhj — but also: 

" He was not only prudent, but also industrious." 

Such — as : 

" There never was such a time as the present." 

Such — that: 

u Such is the emptiness of human enjoyment that we are always 
impatient of the present." 

Than should be used to correspond with rather, other, else, and 
all comparatives: 

" I would rather go than stay." " He is older than his brother." 

The poets frequently use or — or for either — or, and nor — 
nor for neither — nor: 

" Not to be tempted from her tender task, 

Or [either] by sharp hunger, or by smooth delight." — Thomson. 
"Nor [neither] eye nor listening ear an object finds." — Young. 

Form sentences containing the following conjunctions used in corre- 
spondence with other ivords: 

Or, yet, nor, as, that, than. 



CONJUNCTIONS — INTERJECTIONS. 165 

238. The conjunction as, used in connection with an adjec- 
tive or an adverb in the positive degree, is sometimes improp- 
erly coupled with a comparative, and followed by than. 

Coivect Example. — " I am as well as you have ever known me in a 
time of much trouble, and even better." — Gowper. 

Incorrect Construction. — " I have proceeded in the revisal as far and 
somewhat farther than the fifteenth book." — Cowper. 

239. As is sometimes used to connect words that are in 
apposition: 

" Nor ought we, as citizens, to acquiesce in an injurious act." — 
Channing. 

As may also be used to connect an adjective or a participle 
with a noun or pronoun: 

"The infantry was regarded as comparatively worthless." — Macau- 
lay. " Their presence was of great moment, as giving consider- 
ation to the enterprise." — Prescott. 

240. The conjunction that is often employed to introduce a 
clause which is used as a noun in the nominative or objective 
case: 

" That the idea of glory should be associated, strongly with military 
exploits, ought not to be wondered at." — Channing. 

241. The word both should not be used with reference to 
more than two objects or classes of objects. 

The following use of both is erroneous : " He paid his contributions 
to literary undertakings, and assisted both the Tattler, Spectator, 
and Guardian." — Johnson. The word both should be omitted." 



INTERJECTIONS. 

242. Interjections have no grammatical relation to the 
other words of a sentence : 

11 These were delightful days; but alas! they are no more." 
Form sentences containing interjections. 



166 SYNTAX. 



EXERCISE. 

1. "Hail, Twilight! sovereign of one peaceful hour." — 
Wordsworth. 

2. "Sooner or later, some passages of every one's romance 
must be written, either in words or actions." — Longfellow. 

3. "What hinders then but that thou find her out? "— Addi- 
son. 

4. "The War of the Roses lasted thirty years." 

5. " Talk to the point, and stop when you have reached it." — 
Jno. Neal. 

6. "Ah, if tjje rich were rich, as the poor fancy riches!" — 
Emerson. 

7. " Nature hath appointed the twilight as a bridge to pass us 
out of night into day." 

Parse the italicized words in the foregoing examples. 

Give the syntax of the ivords that are in full- face type. 

Analyze the last two examples. 

Take your readers and select prepositions, conjunctions, and interjec- 
tions, and give the syntax of each. 

Write sentences containing prepositions that express the relations of 
objectives to verbs, nouns, and adjectives, — containing compound preposi- 
tions; — containing nouns used adverbially in the objective without preposi- 
tions. 

Write sentences containing conjunctive adverbs; — compound conjunc- 
tions ; — corresponding conjunctions ; — sentences containing interjections. 



REVIEW. 

General rule for adverbs. The responsive adverbs yes and no. How 
is a negation properly expressed ? Adverbial phrases. Examples. Rule 
for the position of adverbs. Illustrate. 

Rule for the relation expressed by prepositions. Compound preposi- 
tions. Examples. Care required in the choice of prepositions. Illus- 
trate. What do prepositions govern ? Examples. Nouns used adverb- 
ially in the objective. Examples. Rule respecting the position of 
prepositions. Illustrate. 



COMPOSITION — PARSING. 1G7 

General rule for conjunctions. What other words are employed as 
connectives? Double office of conjunctive adverbs. Examples. Con- 
junctive phrases. Corresponding conjunctions. Examples. With what 
words does than properly correspond ? Examples. Improper use of tlutii 
after as. Examples. Caution in regard to the use of both. Illustrate. 

Rule for interjections. Examples. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XXVIII. 

ORAL. 

Let five or more subjects be assigned, and let each pupil select one of 
them and study it carefully before coming to the class. 

Let the subjects of the first lesson be such that the pupils can easily 
prepare themselves to speak upon them ; as, Columbus, Robinson Crusoe, 
A Bottle, A Journey, A Saw-mill, A Sailor, A Soldier, New Year's Day. 

Let each pupil rise in the class and speak from one to three minutes 
upon one of these subjects, expressing his thoughts in the best manner. 

If classes are small, more time may be allowed to each pupil. The 
same object may be accomplished in larger classes by having one half 
of the class speak one day and the other half the next day. 

[Add similar exercises.] 



SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

243. Teachers will find it useful to have occasional exercises 
devoted entirely to the syntactical relations and offices of words 
and sentences. 

EXERCISE. 

Let the teacher select a piece from the reading book of the class and 
assign it a day in advance, so that it may be studied with special care 
and all its syntactical difficulties be mastered. 

Let the first pupil give the syntax of the first word in the piece, the 
second pupil that of the second word, and so on around the class to the 
end of the lesson. Or, the first pupil may take all the words of the first 
line, the second pupil the words of the second line, and so on around the 
class. When errors occur, they should be corrected in the class. See 
model for syntactical parsing, § 173. 



GRAMMATICAL CONNECTION OF WORDS. 



244. Of the various exercises that have been employed 
as collateral aids to syntactical analysis and parsing, no 
one has proved more useful or important than that of 
tracing the grammatical connections and relations of the 
different words in a sentence. The method here presented 
relieves entirely the monotony of common parsing and 
carries the pupil at once to the true relations and offices of 
the different words. It has the advantage of combining 
the essential principles of both analysis and parsing, and 
of presenting them in a condensed and synoptical form. 
If teachers would make frequent use of this method, it 
would render the study of grammar more intellectual and 
save much valuable time. 

EXERCISE. 

MODELS. 

"But hoary Winter, unadorned and bare, 
Dwells in the dire retreat, and freezes there." 

— Addison. 

Trace the chain of connection from dire to bare: 

Dire qualifies retreat; retreat is the object of in, which relates it to 
dwells; dwells agrees with Winter, and Winter is qualified by bare. 
Trace the grammatical connection from there to dwells: 
There modifies freezes and connects the two clauses, of which 
freezes and dwells are the verbs. 
168 



GRAMMATICAL CONNECTION OF WORDS. 169 

" Common sense in an uncommon degree is what the 

world calls wisdom." — Coleridge, 

Trace the connection, in the foregoing sentence, from calls to sense: 

Calls governs what taken as a relative, and what taken as antecedent 
is the subjective complement of &, which agrees with its subject 
sense. 

' 'There is a power 
Unseen that rules th' illimitable world, 
That guides its motions, from the brightest star 
To the least dust of this sin-tainted mould ; 
While man, who madly deems himself the lord 
Of all, is nought but weakness and dependence." 

— Thomson. 
Trace the connection from unseen to rules ; — from guides, in the third 
line, to is, in (he first; — from sin-taintecl to guides; — from'&Yl to deems ;^ 
from dependence, in the sixth line, to power in the first 
8 



IMPROPRIETIES IN THE USE OF LANGUAGE. 



245. Special attention should be given to the correction of impro- 
prieties in the use of language. Errors of frequent occurrence should 
be pointed out and pupils should be cautioned against repeating them. 

Examples. 

"The work was commenced when you was absent." 

Corrected : " The work was commenced when you were absent.' ' 
The singular form was should never be used to agree with the pro- 
noun you. 

44 It was me." 

Corrected : " It was I." See § 211. 

EXERCISE, 

Correct the errors in the following examples and give the reasons for 
the changes made : 

1. " He talks like you do."' 

2. "I expected to have seen him." 

3. " As soon as the crowd begun to disperse/' 

4. " They done it in great haste. 7 ' 

5. " Cut it in half." 

6. " Miss Jones learned him to read and spell." 

7. "This kind of wit is that which abounds in Cowley more 
than in any author that ever wrote.' 1 — Addison. 

8. "Breathing with ease is a blessing of every moment; yet 
of all others it is that which we possess with the least conscious- 
ness." — Paley. 

9. "The mate of a British vessel then laying at anchor in 
Boston harbor." — Sparks. 

10. "My old friend sat himself down in the chair." — Addison. 

11. "For hiro, through hostile camps I bend my way; 

For W\m thus prostrate at thy feet I lay." — Pope. 
m 



IMPROPRIETIES IN THE USE OF LANGUAGE. 171 

12. " As Dr. Wallis hath long ago observed. " — Loivth. 

13. " We are not condemned to toil through half a folio to be 
convinced that the writer has broke his promise." — Johnson. 

14. " Thus oft by mariners are shown 

Earl Godwin's castles overflown." — Swift. 

15. "The stuff itself was well calculated to burn, though of 
course it was not there for such a purpose." 

16. " I hope that I will be excused for repeating what I said 
some years ago." 

17. "She is older than me by ten years." 

18. " I had a splendid time." 

19. " Set down in the first seat you find." 

20. " Brissot, the leader of the Gironde party, is entitled to 
the character of a virtuous man." 

21. "You have laid on the lounge long enough." 

22. " I had rather walk." 

23. " I have lost the game, though 1 thought I should have 
won it." 

24. " Read slow and distinct." 

25. " Let the ball lay as I placed it." 

26. " He has eaten no bread nor drunk no water these two 
days." 

27. "I don't know but what I shall go to New York to- 
morrow." 

28. "Social reformers assert that our deficiencies in this 
respect are being greatly improved." 

29. " Put in three spoonsful of milk." 

30. " He works eight hours and does what he pleases the bal- 
ance of the time." 

31. " Who did you give it to?" 

32. " He is trying to catch the car before it leaves the depot." 

33. " I have no doubt but he will be here to-night." 

34. " Each of the daughters are to have a separate share." 

35. " No other resource but this was allowed him." 

36. "Everybody has a right to look after their own interests." 

EXERCISE. 

Let the pupils collect as many examples of incorrect language as 
they can find in actual use, whether in speaking or in writing, and 
bring them to the class. 

Let each pupil read the examples he has collected, and let the teacher 
call on other pupils in turn to correct them. 



PUNCTUATION. 



[The rules for Punctuation are introduced at different points in the work as they 
are required for use in the Composition Exercises. They are brought together here for 
convenient reference.] 

246. Punctuation is the art of dividing written com- 
position by means of points or marks, to indicate the 
relations of the different words of a sentence and show 
more clearly the sense intended. 

247. The principal points employed in punctuation 
are, the Comma (,), the Semicolon (;), the Colon (:), the 
Period (.), the Interrogation Point (?), the Exclamation 
Point (!), the Dash ( — ), the Parenthesis ( ), the Quotation 
Points (" "), and Brackets [ ]. 

COMMA. 

GENERAL RULE. 

248. The comma is used to indicate a slight separa- 
tion or disconnection of the different parts of a sentence, 
and to show more clearly the sense intended ; but when 
the sense is clearly expressed without the aid of a comma, 
it should generally be omitted: 

"To dispel these errors, and to give a scope to navigation equal 
to the grandeur of his designs, Prince Henry called in the aid 
of science." — Irving. 
11 He, like the world, his ready visit pays 
Where fortune smiles." — Young. 



COMMA. 173 

249. When the subject of a verb is extended to consider- 
able length, it is generally separated from the verb by a comma: 

"The effect of this universal diffusion of gay and splendid light, 
was to render the preponderating deep green more solemn." — 
D wight. 

" How dearly it remembered the parent island, is told by the 
English names of its towns." — Bancroft. 

250. Three or more successive words or phrases in the same 
construction, with or without conjunctions expressed, should 
generally be separated by commas: 

" Little, Brown, and Company." 

"Industry, honesty, and temperance are essential to happiness." 

"There is still something to add, to alter, or to reject." — Macaulay. 

251. The independent case, the infinitive absolute, and the 
participle absolute, with their adjuncts, should be separated 
from the rest of the sentence by commas: 

" The wind being favorable, we set sail." 
"To be candid with you, I think you are mistaken." 
" Wept o'er his wounds, or tales of sorrow done, 
Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were won." 

— Goldsmith. 
"Rejoice, you men of Angiers, ring your bells." — Shakspeare. 

252. When a word and a phrase, or two or more phrases, 
are put in apposition, they should generally be separated from 
each other and from the rest of the sentence by commas: 

" Chaucer, the father of English poetry, passed a great part of his 
life at the court of Edward III." 

253. But w T hen two words in apposition, with or without 
adjuncts, are closely united so as to form a single phrase, they 
should not be separated by a comma: 

" The poet Longfellow has written beautiful prose." 
"What we learn in our youth grows up with us, and in time 
becomes a part of the mind itself" 

254. When w r ords in the predicate are put in apposition 
with words in the subject, no comma is required: 

He returned & friend who came a foe." — Pope. 



174 PUNCTUATION. 

SEMICOLON". 

GENERAL RULE. 

255. The semicolon is used to denote a separation or 
disconnection somewhat greater than that which is indi- 
cated by the use of a comma : 

" Men may judge and compare; but they will not create." 

— Macaulay. 

" Columbus had borne up firmly against the rude conflicts of the 
world; he had endured with lofty scorn the injuries and insults 
of ignoble men ; but he possessed strong and quick sensibility." 
— Irving. 

256. When as, i.e., that is, viz., to wit, or namely, is used to 
ifttroduce an illustrative example or a specification of particu- 
lars, it is preceded by a semicolon: 

"Many words are differently spelled in English; as, inquire, 
enquire; jail, gaol." — Wilson's Punctuation. 

COLON. 

Note. — The colon is now less used than formerly; its place being 
largely supplied by the period, the semicolon, or the clash. There are, 
however, many cases in which no other point can with propriety be sub- 
stituted. 

257. When a quotation or an example is introduced 
without the use of a connecting word, it is generally pre- 
ceded by a colon. Many writers use both a colon and a 
dash : 

"The following are conjunctional phrases: and also, as for, as 

though, as icell as, but also, forasmuch as, for why, in order that, 

provided that" — Douglas's Grammar. 
"The plural is formed in English, with few exceptions, by adding 

'.s- 1 to the singular: 'ship, ships.' " — Bain's Grammar. 
"Mr. Cowley answered somewhat sharply: 'I am sorry, sir, to 

hear you speak thus.' " — Macaulay. 

See also numerous illustrative examples in this work. 



PERIOD — DA.SH — INTERROGATION — EXCLAMATION. 175 

PERIOD. 

258. The period is placed at the end of a complete 
sentence, unless its place is supplied by an interrogation 
point or an exclamation point. 

259. The period should be used after all abbreviations: 
"Mass."; "K.Y."; "M.D."; "Aug."; "Esq."; "Mrs."; "Mr." 

Such expressions as 1st, 3rd, 10th, 4's, 9's, 4to, 8vo, 12mo, do not 
require the period after them, since they are not strictly abbreviations, 
the figures supplying the place of the first letters of the words. 

DASH. 

260. The dash is used to mark a sudden interruption, 

an abrupt transition, or a significant pause : 

"Let the government do this — the people will do the rest." — 
Macaulay. 

" Ah, that maternal smile ! it answers — Yes." — Cowper. 
"Here lies the great — false marble, where? 

Nothing but sordid dust lies here."— Young. 
" Know, I pray you — 

I'll know no further." — Shakspeare. 

Modern writers often employ dashes in place of parentheses. 

INTERROGATION POINT. 

261. The interrogation point is placed at the end 
of a direct question : 

" Who can paint like Nature ? *' — Thomson. 

EXCLAMATION POINT. 

262. The exclamation point is used after an expres- 
sion of strong or sudden emotion and after a solemn 
invocation or address : 

"Liberty! Freedom! Tyranny is dead, 

Run hence, proclaim, cry it about the streets ! " — Shakspeare. 
" Hail, holy light! offspring of heaven first-born! "—-MtUon. 



176 PUNCTUATION, 

PARENTHESIS. 

263. The parenthesis ( ) generally includes a word, 
phrase, or remark which is merely incidental or explan- 
atory, and which might be omitted without affecting the 
grammatical construction : 

"The tuneful nine (so sacred legends tell) 
First waked their heavenly lyre these scenes to tell." — Campbell 

QUOTATION MARKS. 

264. Quotation marks (" ") are used to indicate 
that the exact words of another author or speaker are 
introduced : 

For soon he said, sadly, u Ah, Mr. Conly, you are a happy man ! " 

265. When a quotation is introduced within a quotation, it 
is usually distinguished by single inverted commas: 

" I was not only a ship-boy on the ' high and giddy mast,' but also 
in the cabin, where every menial office fell to my lot." 

If both quotations commence or terminate together, this 
commencement or termination is indicated by the use of three 
commas: 

u In the course of this polite attention he pointed in a certain 
direction and exclaimed: k That is Mr. Sherman, of Connecti- 
cut; a man who never said a foolish thing in his life.' " 

BRACKETS. 

266. Brackets or crotchets ( [ ] ). When a word, 
or phrase, or sentence, which is entirely separate and inde- 
pendent in construction, is introduced for the purpose of 
correction, addition, or explanation, it is properly inclosed 
in brackets : 

" He [the poet] cannot, like the girl in the fairy tale, be always 
talking diamonds and pearls." 



DIURESIS — BRACE CARET ET< . 177 

The following characters are also employed in composition: 

267. The apostrophe (' ) is used to denote the omission of 
one or more letters: o'er, tho\ It is likewise the sign of the 
possessive case, being used instead of a letter which was for- 
merly inserted in its place: 

"Washington's army retreated to Princeton." 

268. The diaeresis ( •• ) is placed over the latter of two suc- 
cessive vowels, to show that they belong to successive syllables; 
as, cooperate. 

269. The cedilla ( / ) is a mark which is sometimes placed 
under the letter c, to show that it has the sound of s; as, fapade. 

270. The asterisk, or star (*), the obelisk, or dagger (f), 
the double dagger ( J), the section (§ ), the parallels ( || ), and the 
paragraph ( ^ ), as well as letters and figures, are employed in 
referring to notes in the margin or at the bottom of the page. 

271. Marks of ellipsis (***), or ( — ), or ( ... ), are used 
to denote the omission of certain letters or words: 

«H* * *y"; "K— g." 

"A tale should be judicious, clear, succinct; 
******** 

Tell not as new what everybody knows, 
And,' new or old, still hasten to a close." 

own w -u (is used to connect words which have a 

272. The braced ,. .. , ,. 

( common application or relation: 

ni -, j older oldest 

um ( elder eldest 

273. The caret (A) is employed in writing to show that 
some word or letter has been accidentally omitted: 

with 
"Washington uniformly treated Mr. Sherman great respect and 
attention." t 



178 / TUNCTUATION. 

274. The hyphen ( - ) is used after a part of a word at the 
end of a line, to show that the remainder is at the beginning of 
the next line, and to connect the simple parts of a compound 
word; as, all-absorbing. 

Note. — In dividing a word at the end of a line the break should 
always be made between two syllables, and not between different letters 
of the same syllable. 

275. The index, or hand ( IW ), is used to point out some 
remarkable passage. 

276. The section (§) is used to mark the parts into which 
a work, or portion of a work, is divided. 

277. The paragraph ( U ) is used in the Bible, and in some 
other books, etc., to denote the beginning of a new subject. 

Paragraphs are generally distinguished without the use of 
the sign by commencing a new line farther from the edge than 
the beginning of the other lines. This is called indenting. 



EXERCISE. 

Let the teacher write on the board some portion of a well pointed 
book, or other piece of writing, omitting all the points, and then require 
the pupil to transcribe and punctuate it. When this is done, the several 
copies should be compared and corrected. 

Let the teacher read several paragraphs aloud, giving the pupils time 
to copy them as they are read. These should be carefully punctuated by 
the pupils and compared in the class. 

Let the pupils write original exercises containing illustrative exam- 
ples of the dash, the parenthesis, quotation points, brackets, the apos- 
trophe, the diaeresis, the asterisk, marks of ellipsis, the brace, the caret, 
the hyphen, the section, and the paragraph. 






LETTER WRITING/ 



278. Letter Writirig is the simplest and easiest of all 
forms of written composition. It is the counterpart of 
conversation, and in most cases the style and manner of 
writing hre similar to the style and manner of good con- 
versation. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 

279. Note. — Most of the directions for Written Composition are 
applicable to Letter Writing. See § 38. 

1. — Let special attention be given to the study of good models. 

The letters of Cowper and Franklin are among the best. 
2. — Neatness is an essential quality of good letter writing. 

Negligence and carelessness are disrespectful. 
3. — Remember that " the written letter remains," and avoid 

committing any imprudent or improper expression to paper. 
4. — Let your style be varied so as to adapt it to the subject of 

the letter and the character and circumstances of the person 

addressed. 
5. — Form the habit of writing every letter as well as you can, 

but let your style be easy and flowing, and never allow it to 

bear the marks of being labored and artificial. 
6. — Read every letter over before sealing, to be sure that it is 

free from mistakes and oversights when it leaves you. 
7. — If a letter is not disrespectful, it should be answered, and 

answered promptly. Neglect or delay often mars friendship, 

obstructs business, occasions misunderstandings, and is the 

source of many regrets. 

* "The writing of letters enters so much into all the concerns of life, that no gen- 
tleman can avoid showing himself in compositions of this kind, which lay open his 
breeding, his sense, his abilities, and his disposition to a severer examination than any 
oral discourse. 1 "—Locke. 

179 



180 COMPOSITION. 



SPECIAL DIRECTIONS. 

HEADING. 

280. If a letter is to fill the first page, commence the head- 
ing about an inch or an inch and a half from the top. If it is 
to contain only a few lines, place the heading a little lower 
down. 

Let the heading be commenced so far to the right that it will 
end near the right-hand margin, thus: — 






If the heading of a letter is much over half a line in length, 
it is better to break it into parts and write it on two lines, 
thus : — 

462 W. 7faj/ima/on r^iee^ 

ADDRESS. 

281. The address should be written on the line next below 
the heading and commence about half an inch from the left 
edge of the page. If the address consists of parts that are natu* 
rally separated, these parts should be written on different lines, 
and each part after the first should commence a little farther to 
the right than the one above it. If the whole address occupies 
so many lines that this continued sloping carries the beginning 
of the letter far to the right, the complimentary address is often 
set to the left, commencing a little farther to the right than the 
address. The parts used to make up a compound name or a 
title should, if possible, be written together on one line. 

In Great Britain the address is generally placed at the bottom 
of the letter, on the left. This practice also prevails to some 
extent in this country, and it is the form usually employed in 
official correspondence. 



i 



LETTER WRITING. 181 

The following models will explain and illustrate these direc- 
tions: — 

IzJeai t^Aci. ffimedj 

ucai <u*e/ceme /etteij etc. 

<^vti. ^ueciae JumeJ. 

"Beai &*, 

umi divei <?/ t/ie o'/A^ etc. 

taemefij ^ 

uw4<f o/ t/ie ot/i, etc. 



cent 



crUnc/ cftate SroimaJ c/c/ico/, 
TfeJ&te/c/, <^Mc?M. 

u am m ieceifit o/ etc 



182 COMPOSITION. 

^MiJ. ^acie/ia <$&. J^enaa//. 

ts Aave atfenaea/c me ccueefonj etc. 

^AtcM <Jaia/i %/am, 

c/ Aave jmJ /eainec/j etc. 



on. ^pciace f^Atann. 

eai mi/cl c/ me /owj etc. 



FORMS OF COMPLIMENTARY ADDRESS. 

282. The forms of address vary with the relations of the 
parties and the degree of intimacy or friendship that exists 
between them: 

Sir, Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, Ladies, My dear 
Mother, My dear Brother, Dear George, My dear George, Dear 
Adams, My dear Adams, Dear Mr. Wright, My dear Mr. Wright, 
Dear Friend, My dear Friend, Madam, Dear Madam. 

The form Dear Sir is the one generally employed, except in 
letters of friendship. Sir is cold and distant, and is now seldom 
used. 

283. The titles prefixed to names are Mr., Messrs., Mrs., 
Mesdames, Miss, Misses, Dr., Rev., Rev. Mr., Rev. Dr., Prof., Hon., 
His Excellency, Colonel, General, etc. 



LETTER WRITING. 183 

The title Hon. is applied to men in high official position, as 
senators and representatives, heads of government departments, 
mayors, judges, etc. 

The title His Excellency is applied to the President of the 
United States and to the governor of a state. 

Married ladies often take the titles of their husbands; as, Mrs. 
Dr. Jo)tes, Mrs. General Grant. 

284. The titles affixed to names are Esq., M.D., A.M., 
Ph.D., D.D., LL.D., etc. 

Some double titles are allowable; as, Rev. Mr. Strong; Rev. 
Gardner Spring, D.D.; Noah Porter. D.D., LL.D.; but it is not 
allowable to say Mr. John Jones, Esq.; Mr. John Jones, A.M.; 
Dr. John Jones, Esq.; Mr. Dr. Jones. 

The title Esq. was formerly given as a mark of special re- 
spect to lawyers and other persons of more than ordinary promi- 
nence or distinction, but it has now lost its original force, and is 
very generally employed in place of Mr. In most cases the use 
of Mr. is now quite as respectful as the use of Esq. 

BODY OF A LETTER. 

285. The body of a letter should commence on the line 
next below the complimentary address, and a little farther to 
the right. 

A new paragraph should be introduced whenever the break 
in connection is sufficient to allow it. The frequent introduc- 
tion of paragraphs improves the appearance of a letter. 

SUBSCRIPTION. 

286. The complimentary closing of a letter is written under 
the body of the letter at the right hand. It should commence 
about the middle of a line. If its length is much over half a 
line, it is better to break it into parts and write it on two or 
more lines, commencing each line after the first a little farther 
to the right than the one above it. The name of the writer is 
written under the complimentary closing, at the right hand. 



184 COMPOSITION.. . 

287. FORMS OF CLOSING. 



6/eeleta4M. 



^c/eiy &u/u weaiJj 



^eniw toned. 



&vei ajMctionate/u woctiJj 

%/iai/eJ iS&aamj. 

Uvui cveaien/ Jeivantj 

m 7f. Mu 7 . 



LETTER WRITING. 185 



'ei?/ iejfiect/it/t?/ 



e/in (Baton, 
wmmcddionei c/&aacatwn. 



t^cwi effiecfibnafe dan, 

^eeiae y%. ioned. 

Uoai we/ceine /ettei, etc. - - - - - 



^yvud. (&/&cia (pieMj 



ucaid coimaiMj 

%zne t-Tt&cctm. 



186 COMPOSITION. 

SUPERSCRIPTION. 

288. The proper form to be adopted in superscribing a 
letter is best learned by studying good models. 

The name should generally be written about midway between 
the top and bottom of the envelope. Each line below the name 
should commence a little farther to the right than the line 
above. The place of beginning for the first line is governed 
mainly by the length of the line and the number of lines that 
are to follow. 

Great care should be taken to have the superscription neat 
and plain, and so definite and full that the letter will be sure to 
reach its destination. 

In directing letters to married ladies, it is generally best to 
employ the christian names and titles of their husbands; as, 
Mrs. George M. Hall, Mrs. Dr. John Lyman. 



COMPOSITION EXERCISE XXIX. 

LETTERS. 

Write a letter giving an account of a journey, real or imaginary, and 
give special attention to the writing, spelling, punctuation, paragraphs, 
heading, address, subscription, superscription, etc. 
fc ^Criticisms and corrections. 

[Add similar exercises.] 



INDEX. 



Adjectives, definition 18, 54 

classes 54, 55 

articles 54 

comparison 57 

sy nl ax of 145 

Adjuncts 108 

Adverbs, definition 21, 91 

classes 91 

conjunctive 92 

comparison 92 

syntax of 156 

Adverbial phrases 157 

Analysis, definition . . 103 

oral and written 122 

models of 122-129 

Apostrophe 177 

Apposition, rule 134 

Articles 19, 54 

syntax of 147 

As 165 

Asterisk 177 

Auxiliaries 77 

Both 162 

Brackets 176 

Brace 177 

But 162 

Capital letters 97 

Caret 177 

Case 42 

Cedilla 177 

Classification of sentences 105 

Clauses, definition 12, 105 

substantive, adjective, and 

adverbial 108 

Colon 174 

Comma 172 

Comparison of adjectives .... 57 

of adverbs 92 



Composition, inductive exer- 
cise 26 

definition 29 

directions for written 40 

oral 156,167 

abstracts 159 

letters 186 

Conjugation of verbs 77 

Conjunctions, definition . . .12, 105 

classes 94 

coordinate 95 

subordinate 95 

corresponding 163 

compound 163 

syntax of 162-165 

Conjunctive adverbs 92 

Conversation exercises, 

45, 53, 60, 91, 97, 145, 149 

Coordinate conjunctions 95 

Copiousness and accuracy ... 34 
Corresponding conjunctions. . 173 

Dash 175 

Declension of nouns 44 

Declension of personal pro- 
nouns 47 

Defective verbs 90 

Derivation, definition 100 

primitive and derivative 

words 100 

simple and compound 100 

by change of letters 101 

Saxon, Latin, and Greek 

roots 101 

prefixes and suffixes 102 

Diagram analysis 121 

construction of diagrams. . . 121 

models 122-129 

Diuresis 177 

J^ach other 134 



187 



188 



INDEX. 



Elements 104 

Ellipsis 119 

marks of 177 

English grammar, definition. 29 

Etymology, definition 30 

Exclamation point 175 

False syntax 170 

First three, last three, etc 147 

Full-face type 99 

Gender 35 

Grammatical and logical dis- 
tinctions 110 

Grammatical connection of 
words 168 

Greek roots 101 

Historical notice 7 

Hyphen 177 

Improprieties 170 

Independent case, rule 138 

Index 177 

Infinitives, government of 153 

Interrogation point 175 

Interjections 25, 96 

Interrogative pronouns 51 

It, uses of 139 

Italic letters 99 

Language 9 

Latin roots , 100 

Letter writing 179-186 

Like and unlike 163 

List of irregular verbs 72 

Mine, thine, etc 48 

Mode 64 

Modifications of grammatical 

subject 115 

Modifications of grammatical 

predicate 118 

Nominatives, rule 134 

Nor — nor, for neither — nor . . 164 

Nouns, definition 15, 30 

proper and common 31 

gender 35 

person 37 

n umber 38 

case 42 



Number 38 

Number and person of verbs . 69 

One another 134 

Or — or, for either — or 164 

Paraphrasing 151 

Paragraph 178 

Parenthesis 176 

Parsing, definition 130 

order of 130 

models of 131, 132 

syntactical 132, 167 

Parts of speech 15, 30 

Participles 65 

rule 154 

Person 37 

Personal pronouns 46 

declension of 47 

Period 175 

Phrases, definition 13, 108 

classes 112 

Poetry changed to prose 137 

Possessives, rule 135 

Predicate, definition 11, 104 

grammatical Ill 

logical Ill 

modifications of grammat- 
ical 118 

Prefixes 102 

Preparatory lessons 9 

Prepositions 24, 93 

relation and government ... 161 

Primitive words 100 

Principal parts of verbs 71 

Pronouns, definition 17 

personal 46 

relative 50 

interrogative 51 

syntax of 139 

Properties of nouns 35 

Properties of verbs 62 

Proper and common nouns. . . 31 
Punctuation 172-177 

Quotation marks 176 

Regular and irregular verbs. . 71 

Relative adverbs 163 

Relative pronouns. 50 

Roots, Saxon, Latin, and Greek 101 



INDEX. 



189 



Saxon roots 101 

Same case 153 

Section mark 178 

Semicolon 174 

Sentences, definition 10, 103 

simple 105 

compound 105 

complex 106 

Shall and will 78 

Subject, definition 11, 104 

grammatical 110 

logical Ill 

simple and compound 116 

modifications of grammat- 
ical 115 

Subordinate conjunctions 95 

Suffixes 102 

Synonyms 70 

Synopsis of verbs 77 

Syntax, definition 103 

Synthesis 103 

Transitive and intransitive 

verbs 61 

Tense .., 67 

That, uses of 142 

Unipersonal verbs 90 

Variety of constiuction, 

106, 107, 129 



Variety of expression 114 

Verbs, definition 19, 60 

transitive and intransitive. . 61 

properties . 62 

voice 62 

mode 64 

participles 65 

tense 67 

number and person 69 

principal parts 71 

regular and irregular 71 

list of irregular 71 

conjugation 77, 88 

synopsis 77 

auxiliaries 77 

shall and will 78 

defective 90 

unipersonal '. 90 

agreement 149 

government 152 

subjective and objective 

complement 153 

Voice 62 

Who, uses of 142 

Which, uses of 142 

Words, study of 

34, 44, 50, 59, 63, 67, 70, 93 

Yes and no 157 

You 48 



■ ! 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

llillllilllllilllllllllll 



003 244 242 



